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原題目題號：DSE-2012-Essay-06
追溯並解釋歐洲經濟統合在1948-2000年間的發展。
架構 歐洲國家於二次大戰後開始在經濟上進行統合。大致上，歐洲經濟統合可分為四個階段，分別是開端期(1948-51年)、延伸期(1952-64年)、成型期(1965-90年)及成熟期(1991-2000年)。
主旨句 第一階段是歐洲經濟統合的開端期(1948-51年)。 // 概括部分 二次大戰後，東、西歐各自開展了經濟上的合作，但此時期的合作不論在組織、措施上都較為鬆散，並不完善。 // 範疇一 在西歐方面，英、法、西德等18個資本主義國家於1948年成立了歐洲經濟合作組織，分配美國馬歇爾計劃(1948年)所得的貸款。另外，比、荷、盧三個小國也建立了比荷盧聯盟(1948年)，促進會員國間的商品、資源流動性。 // 範疇二 在東歐方面，蘇聯、波蘭、匈牙利等合共6個東歐國家也組織了經濟互助委員會(1949年)，開展東歐的經濟合作。值得注意的是，此時期的經濟組織功能較小，例如歐洲經濟合作組織的功能主要只是分配美國馬歇爾計劃的130億貸款，未有建立緊密的合作。 // 小結 可見，1948-51年間是歐洲經濟統合的開端期。
主旨句 強國的援助和小國的不足是導致歐洲國家開展合作的原因。 // 原因一歐洲國家受二次大戰的破壞而使經濟百業蕭條，美國和蘇聯兩國超級強國分別援助西歐和東歐各國，結果促成了西歐和東歐各自的經濟合作出現，例如西歐國家為分配美國馬歇爾計劃的130億貸款而成立了歐洲經濟合作組織；蘇聯與東歐國家成立了經濟互助委員會以承接莫洛托夫計劃(1947年)，繼續進行經濟合作。 // 原因二 此外，由於比、荷、盧是小國，他們在美國馬歇爾計劃所得到的援助金額較小，加上本身的國土較小、資源有限。為了彌補這些不足，三小國成立了比荷盧聯盟以促進三國的資源調配，推動經濟復甦，使局部性的地區合作出現。
第二階段是歐洲經濟統合的延伸期(1952-64年)。此時期，以法國為首的「內六國」和以英國為首的「外七國」各自建立了經濟合作，目的不僅是重建經濟，更是促進會員國間的資源運用及降低關稅。在資源運用方面，「內六國」分別成立了歐洲煤鋼共同體(1952年)及歐洲原子能共同體(1958年)，就煤、鐵、鋼及原子能作出技術及資源上的合作。在降低關稅方面，「內六國」於1958年成立了「歐洲經濟共同體」，而「外七國」也於1960年另起爐灶，建立了歐洲自由貿易聯盟，降低會員國間的貿易壁壘，但分別在於前者設統一對外關稅，後者則不設。可見，此時期「內六國」和「外七國」分道揚鑣，同時，經濟合作的範疇也得到提昇。
法國因素和英國因素導致了第二階段的出現。法國方面，鑑於比荷盧聯盟的合作取得了顯著的成效，法國外長舒曼希望成立一組織以建立更具規模的合作，例如於1952年成立了歐洲煤鋼共同體，以充分調配法國的鐵及德國的煤等資源，以推動會員國間的經濟復興，結果促使了「內六國」進行合作。至於英國方面，由於英國害怕緊密的經濟合作會損害國家的自主權，故拒絕加入「內六國」的合作，並且另起爐灶，建立歐洲自由貿易聯盟，希望在維護國家主權的同時，也能透過與其他國家的合作以刺激經濟發展，結果塑造了此時期「內六國」和「外七國」分道揚鑣的局面出現。
第三階段是歐洲經濟統合的成型期(1965-90年)。此時期，雖然東、西歐的經濟仍然各自為政，但西歐國家已經開始統一經濟合作組織及市場，西歐經濟統合已經大致成型。在組織方面，「內六國」於1965年簽署了《布魯塞爾條約》，將歐洲煤鋼共同體、歐洲原子能共同體、歐洲經濟共同體合併為歐洲共同體。往後，「外七國」於1972年後逐漸加入歐洲共同體，西歐的經濟合作統一於歐洲共同體。在市場方面，歐洲共同體在組織上成型後，更開始計劃統一歐洲市場，於1987年落實了《單一歐洲法案》，希望完全打通會員國間的貨品、資源和人力的流動性。可見，雖然東、西歐分裂局面仍然存在，但西歐的經濟統合已經成型，更邁向建立單一市場。
「內六國」的合作成功及「外七國」的成效有限塑造了此階段的歐洲經濟統合。由於「內六國」在早期的經濟合作上取得了重大的成果，例如歐洲煤鋼共同體的成立有助充分運用各國的煤、鐵等資源，使會員國的整體工業產量到了1960年增加了58%。因此，「內六國」願意進一步加強經濟合作，成立歐洲共同體，一方面將合作範疇擴大，同時避免了歐洲煤鋼、原子能及經濟三共同體內業務重疊的不便。另一方面，由於「外七國」的合作成效比不上「內六國」，歐洲自由貿易聯盟成員國的國民生產總值只有相當於歐共體成員國的2/3，「外七國」逐步加入歐共體，使歐洲經濟統合得到擴展，並且逐漸成型。
第四階段是歐洲經濟統合的成熟期(1991-2000年)。此時期，西歐的經濟統合發展至緊密的關係，而且東歐也開始融入西歐的合作。西歐國家於1993年成立了歐盟以取替歐洲共同體，進一步加強歐洲國家間的統合，其中在促進人力和資金流動性方面，1995年生效的《申根公約》廢除了簽署國間的邊境關卡管制。及後，歐盟又於1999年成立歐洲中央銀行，並推出歐羅作為大部分會員國間的通用貨幣，建立了統一的貨幣制度，大大有助單一市場的建立。與此同時，東歐也開始參與西歐的經濟統合，東歐多國陸續於1991年後與歐洲共同體簽訂協議，包括《歐共體—波蘭協定》、《歐共體—匈牙利協定》，獲得加入西歐經濟統合的候補資格，為東、西歐的經濟統合鋪路。可見，此時期，東歐已經開始融入西歐的經濟統合，而歐盟在制度上已經十分成熟，是歐洲經濟統合的成熟期。
西歐國家的合作態度及東歐的變天導致了歐洲經濟統合走向成熟。隨著西歐在過往的合作得到成功，歐共體的會員國希望進一步擴大合作，落實單一市場，遂成立了歐盟以取替歐共體，並且落實了《申根公約》(1995年)有關取消邊境關卡管制的措施，以及推出歐羅(1999年)作為統一貨幣，使西歐的經濟統合變得更加徹底。此外，隨著1989年起東歐變天，東歐共產主義陣營瓦解，經濟互助委員會也在1991年6月解散。東歐國家在脫離蘇聯後希望加入西歐的經濟合作以促進經濟的發展，故與歐共體簽訂協議，成為加入歐共體(或日後歐盟)的加盟候補國，使東、西歐的經濟開始走向一體化。
總括而言，歐洲經濟統合於二次大戰後開展，並於20世紀末發展至一成熟的階段，取得了重大的成效，不但令歐洲從二次大戰後的頹垣敗瓦再次走到繁盛，更令歐盟於1999年成為了僅次於美國的全球第二大經濟體系。
Trace and explain the development of economic integration in Europe in the period 1948-2000.
European countries, after the Second World War, started their economic integration that can be divided broadly into four stages: the infant period (1948-51), the period of expansion (1952-64), the period of consolidation (1965-90) and the mature period (1991-2000)
The first stage of European economic integration (1948-51) was the infant period. After the Second World War, Eastern and Western Europe embarked on economic cooperation independently, which was rather loose and not ideal with respect to the organizations and policies established. As for Western Europe, 18 capitalist countries, including Britain, France and West Germany, set up the OEEC歐洲經濟合作組織 in 1948 to distribute the Marshall Plan馬歇爾計劃 aid (1948) from America. Also, Belgium, the Netherland and Luxembourg formed the Benelux Union比荷盧聯盟 in the same year to encouraged free flow of goods and resources between participating states. In Eastern Europe, the USSR, Poland, Hungary and other three countries established the COMECON經濟互助委員會(1949) and economic cooperation began there. What worth our attention is that economic organizations at this stage had less significant functions. For instance, the OEEC only attained its prime objective of allocating the American Marshall aids totaling US$13 billion without building close partnership among member states. These show that the period concerned was the infant period of European economic integration.
Aid from superpowers and limitations of small states were the reasons for cooperation. European countries suffered serious destruction during WW2 and their economies were flagging. The two superpowers, the US and the USSR, provided assistance to Western and Eastern Europe respectively and facilitated their economic cooperation separately. For example, Western European countries set up the OEEC歐洲經濟合作組織 in order to distribute the US$13 billion loans provided by the American Marshall Plan馬歇爾計劃, while the USSR and Eastern European nations established the COMECON經濟互助委員會 that was responsible for the Molotov Plan莫洛托夫計劃(1947) to continue their economic cooperation. Additionally, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg were small states and they got proportionally less assistance from the American loan plan. They were small in size and had limited resources. In order to overcome these shortcomings, the three nations established the Benelux Union to facilitate resource usage coordination and economic reconstruction. It led to local cooperation with limited scope.
The second stage (1952-64) was the period of expansion of European economic integration. During this period, the Inner Six內六國 and Outer Seven外七國established economic cooperation separately with France and Britain as leaders respectively. They aimed at not only economic reconstruction but also better coordination in the use of resources資源運用 and lower tariffs降低關稅. In terms of resource allocation, the Inner Six set up the European Coal and Steel Community(ECSC)歐洲煤鋼共同體(1952) and the European Atomic Energy Community(EURATOM)歐洲原子能共同體(1958), having cooperation on technology and resources for coal, iron, steel and atomic energy. As for reducing tariffs, the Inner Six established the European Economic Community(EEC)歐洲經濟共同體 in 1958, while the Outer Seven started another organization called the European Free Trade Association(EFTA)歐洲自由貿易聯盟 in 1960 to reduce trade barriers among its members. The difference was that the former also imposed unified tariffs on all foreign trade, but the latter did not. It is clear that the Inner Six and Outer Seven operated in parallel with each other and further economic cooperation was achieved.
With the France factor and the Britain factor, the integration progressed to the second stage. In the light of the remarkable achievement of the Benelux Union比荷盧聯盟, French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman舒曼 wanted to enlarge the scale of cooperation by establishing a new organization. For example, France set up the ECSC歐洲煤鋼共同體 in 1952 to share and fully utilize resources like iron from France and coal from Germany, facilitating economic recovery among member states and cooperation between the Inner Six. As for Britain, it worried that close economic cooperation would infringe national sovereignty, and it thus refused to join the cooperation among the Inner Six. Instead, it started a new organization, known as the EFTA歐洲自由貿易聯盟, in order to stimulate its economic development by cooperating with other countries alongside preserving its autonomy. What resulted was the division between the Inner Six and Outer Seven.
The third stage (1965-90) was the period of consolidation. At this stage, the two Europes remained divided economically, but countries in the west has started combining economic cooperation organizations and markets. Their economic integration was almost shaped up. With respect to the organizations, the Inner Six signed the Treaty of Brussels布魯塞爾條約 in 1965 to merge the ECSC歐洲煤鋼共同體, EURATOM歐洲原子能共同體 and EEC into the European Community(EC)歐洲共同體, which later granted membership to the Outer Seven one after another after 1972. Western European economic cooperation was unified and came under the EC. For the common market, after the EC was established, it planned to create the European single market. The Single European Act單一歐洲法案 was enforced in 1987 with the aim of maximizing the fluidity of goods, resources and manpower among member states. These show that the separation between the two Europes remained, but economic integration in the west took shape and there was a tendency towards a single market.
The success of cooperation among the Inner Six and the limited effectiveness of that of the Outer Seven shaped the economic integration at this stage. The Inner Six’s early economic cooperation had great achievement. For instance, the ECSC歐洲煤鋼共同體 facilitated coordination in the use of resources like coal and steel among its participants, leading to a 58% increase in their total industrial production. Therefore, the Inner Six were willing to further their economic cooperation and formed the EC to not only extend the scope of cooperation but also prevent the inconvenience caused by the overlapping duties of the ECSC, EURATOM and EEC. On the other hand, the cooperation among the Outer Seven was not as effective as that of the Inner Six. The total GNP of members of the EFTA歐洲自由貿易聯盟 was only two-thirds of that of the EC. As a result, the Outer Seven joined the EC one after another, which led to the extension and consolidation of European economic integration.
The fourth stage (1991-2000) was the mature period of European economic integration. During the period, Western European countries developed strong ties through economic integration and Eastern European nations began to take part in their cooperation. The former established the European Union(EU) 歐盟 in 1993 to replace the EC歐洲共同體 and to further encouraged integration of Europe. Concerning labour and capital flows, the Schengen Agreement申根公約, coming into effect in 1995, abolished border checks at the signatories’ common border. Afterwards, the European Central Bank歐洲中央銀行 was established and the euro歐羅 introduced as the single currency amongst most of the members in 1999. A unified monetary system, that greatly helped the building of a common market, was set up. Also, Eastern Europe participated in economic integration of its western neighbour. Many countries there, including Poland and Hungary, signed agreements with the EC individually after 1991 and became waitlist候補資格 to join the economic integration. This paved the way for economic integration of the two Europes. All of these show that Eastern European countries started assimilating into economic integration of their Western counterparts and systems of the EU were well-developed, proving that it was the mature period.
The cooperative attitude of Western European countries and democratic movements東歐變天 in their eastern counterparts led European economic integration to maturity. With the previous success of cooperation among Western European countries, members of the EC wanted to further enlarge the scale of cooperation and create a single market. Therefore, they replaced the EC with the EU, abolished border checks as stated in the Schengen Agreement申根公約(1995) and introduced the euro歐羅 as the single currency in order to achieve more thorough economic integration. In addition, the communist bloc collapsed amid the democratic movements in Eastern Europe. The COMECON經濟互助委員會 was subsequently disbanded in July, 1991. After getting out of Soviet control, the former communist countries sought cooperation with Western Europe to stimulate economic growth. Thus, they signed agreements with the EC and became potential members of it (or the EU, its successor). After that, the two Europes were more integrated economically.
In conclusion, European economic integration started after WW2 and became sophisticated and highly effective by the end of the 20th century. Not only did it guide Europe from devastation to prosperity, but it also made the European Union the world’s second largest economy after the United States in 1999.
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