15.德國重新實施徵兵制Germany’s reintroduction of conscription (1935年)
A. 德國重新實施徵兵制的背景及原因：
於德國重新實施徵兵制Conscription前，希特拉早已透過「希特拉青年團」Hitler Youth培訓青少年的體格及軍事知識。到1935年3月16日，希特拉公然違反《凡爾賽條約》Treaty of Versailles的軍事限制規定，重新實行徵兵制，將軍隊擴至36個師。稍後，於3月19日，德國再次違反《凡爾賽條約》的規定，建立空軍。
B. 英、法兩國的反應：
Ø 法國：法國表示抗議及遺憾，但由於自身的經濟問題，加上得不到英國的強烈支持而不了了之。事後，法國為箝制德國，與蘇聯簽訂《互助條約》Treaty of Mutual Assistance (1935年5月)，防禦德國的侵略。
Ø 英國：英國也表示遺憾，但由於英國較同情德國於《凡爾賽條約》中的苛刻待遇，因此未有採取實際行動阻止。同時，由於英國懼怕德國的海軍擴張，故英國於1935年6月與德國達成《英德海軍協定》Anglo-German Naval Agreement，德國海軍不能超過英國海軍噸位的35%。
C. 德國重新實施徵兵制的意義：
Ø 為德國推翻《凡爾賽條約》的第一步。也由於德國重新實行徵兵制未有受到重大的阻力，使希特拉更有信心進行擴張。
Ø 證明英法綏靖政策的失敗，導致德國於1936年進軍萊茵河區等。
Ø 令英、法、意於1935年4月組成「史特萊沙陣線」Stresa Front，表示三國會採取聯合行動以維護集體和平。
Ø 為德國進行擴張提供了軍事基礎，日後令德國擠出千萬大軍。
15. Germany’s reintroduction of conscription德國重新實行徵兵制 (1935)
A. Background and Reasons for Germany reintroducing Conscription:
Hitler had intensively trained youth's physique and military knowledge through Hitler Youth Scheme希特拉青年團before its reintroduction of Conscription. Hitler openly offended military restrictions of Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約 and reintroduced conscription on 16th March 1935 with 36 army divisions. Germany once again offended Treaty of Versailles by establishing air forces on 19th March
B. Responses by Britain and France:
Ø France: Expressed its protest and regret, yet did not do much due to its own economic issues and failure in getting Britain's support. France signed Treaty of Mutual Assistance互助條約 with Soviet Union (May 1935) to protect themselves against Germany's invasion Britain.
Ø Britain: Expressed its regret, yet showed its sympathy towards the harsh conditions set for Germany in Treaty of Versailles, thus did not take practical action. Britain then signed Anglo-German Naval Agreement英德海軍協定 in June 1935, restricting that tonnage of Germany's navy could not exceed 35% of Britain's due to the fear of Germany’s naval expansion.
C. Significance of Germany’s reintroduction of Conscription:
Ø First step of Germany offending Treaty of Versailles: reintroduction of conscription was not greatly hindered, positively encouraging Hitler's further expansion.
Ø It signified the failure of appeasement policy of Britain and France, leading to Germany’s expansion into Rhineland in 1936.
Ø It led to the formation of Stresa Front史特萊沙陣線 formed by Britain, France and Italy in April 1935, signifying the three nations would like to unanimously safeguard peace.
Ø It provided military basis for Germany’s expansion, favouring large amount of soldiers available in Germany.
16.法蘇簽訂《互助條約》Signing of the Treaty of Mutual Assistance between France and the USSR (1935年)
A. 《互助條約》簽訂的背景及原因：
由於德國於1935年3月撕毀《凡爾賽條約》Treaty of Versailles，重新實行徵兵制conscription，令法國與蘇聯均深恐德國會捲土重來。但由於法國向英國尋求解決方法不果，故希望再次與蘇聯合作，於1935年5月簽訂互助性的軍事協定，以防止德國的入侵，有效期為5年。
B. 《互助條約》的主要內容：
Ø 當法、蘇任何一國受到歐洲國家侵略時，另一國需要即時提供支援和協助。
C. 《互助條約》的意義：
Ø 《互助條約》加深了德國對法、蘇的猜忌，使德國於1936年與日本簽訂《反共產國際協定》Anti-Comintern Pact，矛頭直指蘇聯。
Ø 雖然已簽訂《互助條約》，但由於法、英兩國採綏靖政策，令蘇聯對英、法有所猜忌，令日後蘇聯與德國簽訂《互不侵略條約》Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact，使《互助條約》變得無效。
16. Signature of Treaty of Mutual Assistance between France & USSR法蘇簽訂《互助條約》 (1935)
A. Background and Reasons for signing Treaty of Mutual Assistance:
France and Soviet Union believed that Germany would re-emerge as Germany offended Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約 by reintroducing conscription徵兵制. France would like to collaborate with Soviet Union as it failed to come up with solution with Britain. Treaty of Mutual Assistance was signed in May 1935 to prevent Germany's invasion with a 5-year effectiveness
B. Content of Treaty of Mutual Assistance
Ø When the signed nation faced invasion by a European nation, another nation must provide immediate back-up and assistance.
C. Significance of Treaty of Mutual Assistance
Ø Treaty of Mutual Assistance increased vigilance of Germany towards France and Soviet Union, leading to the signature of Anti-Comintern Pact反共產國際協定 between Germany and Japan in 1936 which pointed at Soviet Union.
Ø France and Britain still carried out appeasement policy after signature of Treaty of Mutual Assistance, leading to Soviet Union's vigilance towards Britain and France, paving the signature of Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact互不侵略條約, making the Treaty ineffective.
17.意大利侵佔阿比西尼亞Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia (1935-36年)
A. 意大利侵佔阿比西尼亞的背景及原因：
自墨索里尼上台後，意大利已有較溫和的擴張，如對阜姆Fiume (1924)和阿爾巴尼亞Albania(1926)的侵略，但後來由於在和平氣氛的影響底下，意大利的行動有所收歛。但至經濟大蕭條後，隨著日本的侵略行動(「九一八事件」September 18th Incident及「一二八事件」January 28th Incident)未有受到列強的強硬阻止，加上德國也於1935年3月重新實行徵兵制conscription。因此，意大利更有信心向阿比西尼亞Abyssinia擴張。當時，正值意大利與阿比西尼亞有武裝衝突，意大利希望藉此機會進軍阿比西尼亞Abyssinia。
B. 英、法兩國的反應：
Ø 由於英國認為阻止意大利侵佔阿比西尼亞會使墨索里尼與希特拉靠近，故對此採綏靖政策Appeasement Policy，希望割讓阿比西尼亞2/3的領土予意大利，以滿足其野心。
C. 事態的發展：
Ø 意大利早已決定對阿比西尼亞出兵，故英、法私下訂下的協議根本不能滿足意大利侵略的野心。於1935年10月，意大利對阿比西尼亞出兵。
Ø 國聯雖然宣佈意大利為侵略者，並譴責意大利及對其實施經濟制裁。但制裁的物品並不包括石油、鐵、鋼及煤等重要戰略資源。事後更於1936年7月解除對意大利的經濟制裁。
D. 意大利侵佔阿比西尼亞的意義：
Ø 反映綏靖政策的失敗，使希特拉更加有信心向萊茵河區Rhineland進軍。
Ø 反映國聯的失敗，局限於經濟制裁，並無實際的阻止行動。意大利更於1937年退出國聯。
17. Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia意大利侵佔阿比西尼亞 (1935-36)
A. Background and Reasons for Italv invading Abyssinia:
Mussolini initiated mild expansion such as invasions into Fiume阜姆(1924) and Albania阿爾巴尼亞(1926) since he took rule, yet restricted its expansion due to peaceful atmosphere. After Great Depression, Italy witnessed Japanese's invasion (September 18th Incident九一八事件 and January 28th Incident一二八事變) and Germany's reintroduction of conscription徵兵制 in March 1935 did not face great resistance, thus giving confidence for Italy to expand into Abyssinia阿比西尼亞. Italy would like to take the opportunity to invade into Abyssinia阿比西尼亞 as they were having military conflicts at that time.
B. Responses of Britain and France:
Ø Britain thought that prohibiting Italy's invasion in Abyssinia would enable closer relationship between Hitler and Mussolini, thus granting 2/3 of the territory to Italy as an appeasement policy綏靖政策 to satisfy its aggression.
C. Development of Italy invading Abvssinia:
Ø Agreement drafted by Britain and France could not satisfy Italy's aggression as Italy had decided in sending troops to Abyssinia. Italy sent troops to Abyssinia in October 1935.
Ø League of Nations declared Italy as invading nation, condemned Italy with economic sanction, yet the sanction did not include important military resources such as crude oil, iron, steel and coal. League of Nations even stopped economic sanction towards Italy in July 1936.
D. Significance of Italy invading Abyssinia:
Ø It reflected failure of appeasement policy, making Hitler more confident in militarizing Rhineland萊茵河區.
Ø It reflected failure of League of Nations: its effectiveness only existed in economic sanction yet not in practical measures, with Italy's withdrawal from League of Nations in 1937.
18.德軍進入萊茵河區Germany’s remilitarization of Rhineland (1936年)
A. 德軍進入萊茵河區的背景：
由於法蘇兩國於1935年5月簽訂《互助條約》Treaty of Mutual Assistance，令希特拉認為此是針對德國的舉動。因此，希特拉以此為藉口，毀棄《羅加諾公約》Locarno Treaties及再次違反《凡爾賽條約》的規定，於1936年3月派軍進駐萊茵河區Rhineland。
B. 英、法兩國及國聯的反應：
Ø 英國雖然作為《羅加諾公約》的保證國Guarantor，但則傾向同情德國，認為德國駐軍入己國領土也是合理的行為，故反對以有力的行動阻止德國。
Ø 法國甚為緊張，尤以比利時退出與法國於1920年簽訂的同盟條約而重申中立，使法國東北部更容易受到攻擊。但由於英國反對制止，令法國也不敢單獨行動。
Ø 國聯理事會譴責德國的行動破壞了國際協定，但除了譴責外，並無其他實際制裁。
C. 德軍進入萊茵河區的意義：
Ø 再次印證綏靖政策的失敗，使德國繼續有下一進的侵略行動。
Ø 再次印證國聯的失敗，除了譴責外別無他法。
18. Germany’s remilitarization of Rhineland德軍逵入萊茵河區 (1936)
A. Background of Remilitarization of Rhineland:
Hitler thought that Treaty of Mutual Assistance互助條約 in May 1935 by France and Soviet Union was focusing on Germany. Thus, Germany used that as pretext to neglect Locarno Treaties羅加諾公約 and once again offend Treaty of Versailles and remilitarized Rhineland萊茵河區 in March 1936.
B. Responses of Britain, France and League of Nations:
Ø Though as a guarantor保證國 of Locarno Treaties, Britain tended to show sympathy to Germany and claimed that it was acceptable for Germany to militarize its own territory. Britain rejected forceful action in prohibiting Germany.
Ø France became more intense as northeastern part of France would be easily under attack due to the withdrawal of Belgium from the allied treaty with France in 1920. Yet, France dared not to take actions independently due to Britain's opposition.
Ø League of Nations: Council condemned Germany's act had offended international agreement, yet did not do any practical sanction.
C. Significance of Remilitarization of Rhineland:
Ø It signified failure of appeasement policy, paving way for Germany's further expansion.
Ø It signified failure of League of Nations: only able to make condemnation.
19.西班牙內戰Spanish Civil War (1936-39年)
A. 西班牙內戰的內容：
西班牙於1936年7月爆發內戰，以佛朗哥Franco為首的國民軍與共產主義的政府軍作戰。此次內戰的重點在於德國及意大利的介入。德、意為擴大納粹主義及法西斯主義於歐洲的勢力，故為佛朗哥提供軍事援助，分別共派出1萬9千及5萬名士兵協助佛朗哥，並提供軍備援助。最後，於1939年4月，以佛朗哥將軍為首的國民軍取得勝利。
B. 西班牙內戰的意義：
Ø 此次內戰為德、意合作提供了契機，導致兩國組成軸心國。
Ø 西班牙內戰是德國試驗武器的場所。
Ø 西班牙內戰是第一次世界大戰後，歐洲發生的首次戰爭。由於戰爭帶來了緊張的氣氛，英、法為避免爆發更大規模的戰爭，所以對希特拉採取退讓的態度，成為採取綏靖政策的原因之一。
19. Spanish Civil War西班牙內戰(1936-39)
A. Content of Spanish Civil War:
Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936 between Republicans led by Franco佛朗哥 and the communist Nationalists. Spanish Civil War was highly involved by Germany and Italy. Germany and Italy offered military assistance with 69,000 soldiers and armaments to Franco in expanding influence of Nazism and Fascism in Europe. Republicans led by Franco won the war in April 1939
B. Significance of Spanish Civil War:
Ø Spanish Civil War offered platform for German-Italian mutual cooperation and enabled them to become axis powers.
Ø Spanish Civil War offered platform for Germany to test its weapons.
Ø Spanish Civil War was the first war broke out after WWI in Europe, its intense atmosphere made Britain and France keen on making concessions with Hitler and adopted appeasement policy to prevent further war.
20.德意組成柏林—羅馬軸心Berlin-Rome Axis (1936年)
A. 德意組成柏林—羅馬軸心的背景及原因：
雖然德、意兩國於20世紀時的關係並不良好，因意大利曾於一戰時背叛德國。但隨著墨索里尼及希特拉的上台，兩者的意識形態相似，並且有共同的特徵—反共產主義，故為兩國的合作提供了有利的先天條件。於西班牙內戰時，兩國由於支持法西斯主義的佛朗哥Franco將軍而產生了合作的契機。於1936年10月，德、意達成秘密協議，建立柏林—羅馬軸心。
B. 柏林—羅馬軸心的合作內容：
Ø 德國承認意大利侵佔阿比西尼亞Abyssinia；
Ø 德、意兩國在國際問題上採取共同的方針；
Ø 德、意加強空軍的合作。
C. 柏林—羅馬軸心的意義：
Ø 德、意的合作正式建立，成為兩次大戰期間侵略聯盟的開端。
Ø 德、意的合作增加了兩國侵略的野心。
Ø 德、意於日後進行更緊密的軍事合作，於1939年簽訂《鋼鐵條約》Pact of Steel。
20. Berlin-Rome Axis柏林—羅馬軸心 (1936)
A. Background and Reasons for forming Berlin-Rome Axis:
German-Italian relationship was not too good in the early 21st century as Italy joined the Allies during WWI. Yet, the ruling of Hitler and Mussolini drew the two countries together as they shared common ideologies and were both anti-communists. Spanish Civil War provided opportunity for them to collaborate in supporting Franco佛朗哥who advocated Fascism. Berlin-Rome Axis was formed as a secret agreement between Germany and Italy in October 1936
B. Collaboration Content of Berlin-Rome Axis:
Ø Germany admitted Italy's invasion in Abyssinia阿比西尼亞.
Ø Germany and Italy adopted same approach in international issues.
Ø Germany and Italy strengthened mutual air forces cooperation.
C. Significance of Berlin-Rome Axis:
Ø Official establishment of German-Italian cooperation that signified the beginning of setting up military alliances.
Ø Increased Germany's and Italy's aggression in making invasions.
Ø Increased Germany and Italy military cooperation and signed Pact of Steel鋼鐵條約(1939).
21.德日締結《反共產國際協定》Anti-Comintern Pact (1936年)
A. 《反共產國際協定》締結的背景：
原本德國與日本的接觸不多，但自希特拉於1933年上台及軍國主義者於1930年代的日本取得優勢後，兩國有了相似的意識形態基礎，並且視共產主義的蘇聯為一威脅。日本方面，蘇聯向來是日本在中國東北的主要競爭對手，共產主義於中國的滋長更成為日本的憂慮。德國方面，蘇聯於1935年與法國簽訂《互助條約》Treaty of Mutual Assistance，使德國恐懼一戰前的法俄同盟會死灰復燃，故拉攏日本以箝制蘇聯。因此，兩國於1936年11月簽訂《反共產國際協定》。
B. 《反共產國際協定》的主要內容：
Ø 締約國需要對共產國際Communist International的情報相互通報；
Ø 締約國對於遭共產主義威脅的其他國家提供預防措施或邀請其加入本協定。
Ø 締約國遭到蘇聯的攻擊或威脅時，另一國最少需要保持善意性的中立。
C. 《反共產國際協定》的意義：
Ø 德國與日本結成同盟關係，助長了雙方的侵略行動。
Ø 德國已分別與意、日結成盟友，柏林—羅馬—東京軸心的基礎已經形成。
21. Anti-Comintern Pact《反共產國際協定》(1936)
A. Background of forming Anti-Comintern Pact:
Germany and Japan were not close initially. Yet, with the ruling of Hitler starting from 1933 and the rise of militarism in 1930s Japan, both nations shared similar ideologies and considered the communist Soviet Union as a great threat. As for Japan, Soviet Union had long been competitor with Japan in Manchuria, the spread of Communism made Japan to be afraid of it. Regarding Germany, Treaty of Mutual Assistance互助條約 between Soviet Union and France (1935) made Germany to be afraid of the re-emergence of Franco-Russian alliance, thus drawing Japan together in fighting against Soviet Union. Anti-Comintern Pact was signed in November 1936.
B. Content of Anti-Comintern Pact:
Ø The signed nations should exchange information about Communist International共產國際.
Ø The signed nations should provide preventive measures to countries that are under threat of Communism or invite them to join the Pact.
Ø When one signed nation faced attack or threat of Soviet Union, another nation should at least maintain neutrality.
C. Significance of Anti-Comintern Pact:
Ø Alliance was established between Germany and Japan that encouraged both nations' invasion plans.
Ø Basis of Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis was formed as Germany made allies with Italy and Japan.
22.「七七事變」July 7th Incident及中日戰爭的爆發(1937年)
A. 「七七事變」的發生背景及原因：
軍國主義者於1930年代於日本政壇取得權力，進一步加強對中國的侵略。於1937年7月7日晚，駐中國的日軍以日本士兵失蹤為藉口，要求進入由中方管轄的地區進行搜查，但遭到中方拒絕。日軍遂於1937年7月8日凌晨向中方發動進攻。
B. 「七七事變」的意義：
Ø 中日戰爭正式爆發，開展了8年的中日戰爭。
Ø 反映了國聯的無能，因中國多次向國聯求援，但國聯則要求日本暫時恢復會員國身份並合作解決爭端，但遭日本拒絕。理事會要求各會員國對日本進行個別制裁，但毫無成效，日本繼續侵略中國。
22. July 7th Incident 七七事變and Outbreak of Sino-Japanese War (1937)
A. Background and Reasons for causing July 7th Incident:
Militarists took great power in Japan during the 1930s that intensified Japan's invasion in China. Japanese army stationing in China used "finding missing Japanese soldiers" as pretext to request for entering areas that were controlled by China for investigation. China rejected, thus Japan initiated invasion to China in 8th July 1937
B. Significance of July 7th Incident:
Ø Official beginning of Sino-Japanese War that lasted for 8 years.
Ø Reflected the failure of League of Nations: Japan rejected League of Nations' request to temporarily return as a member state in discussing solution to the conflict after China's request for help, while Japan continued its invasion though Council requested member nations to make sanction against Japan.
23.柏林—羅馬—東京軸心Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis (1937)
A. 柏林—羅馬—東京軸心形成的背景及原因：
德國早已於1936年分別與意大利建立柏林—羅馬軸心及與日本簽訂《反共產國際協定》Anti-Comintern Pact，為三國的合作奠定了基礎。於1937年11月，意大利加入《反共產國際協定》，形成柏林—羅馬—東京軸心。
B. 意大利加入《反共產國際協定》的內容：
Ø 德、意贊同日本侵略中國；
Ø 日本承認意大利對阿比西尼亞的吞併。
C. 柏林—羅馬—東京軸心形成的意義：
Ø 侵略同盟的形成使三國更有信心發動侵略，最終成為第二次世界大戰的策動者。
Ø 意大利為加強其侵略的行動，於1937年12月退出國聯，以免受到國聯的束縛。至此，德、日、意已全部退出國聯。
23. Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis柏林—羅馬—東京軸心 (1937)
A. Background and Reasons for forming Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis:
Basis of Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis was formed before with Berlin-Rome Axis (1936) and the signature of Anti-Comintern Pact反共產國際協定. Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact in November 1937, forming Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis
B. Content of Italy’s participation in Anti-Comintern Pact:
Ø Germany and Italy agreed with Japanese invasion in China.
Ø Japan admitted Italy’s invasion in Abyssinia.
C. Significance of Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis:
Ø Three nations were more confident in initiating invasions, making them being countries who led to the outbreak of WWII.
Ø Italy withdrew from League of Nations in December 1937 to intensify its invasion, to be freed from restrictions of League of Nations. All three nations withdrew from League of Nations at that time.
24.德國合併奧地利Anschluss (1938年)
A. 德國合併奧地利的背景及原因：
德國於1935-37年間的軍事建設使其軍事實力大大得到恢復，加上侵略聯盟的形成，德國有信心進行更大規模及侵略性的擴張行動。於奧地利方面，奧地利於《聖澤門條約》Treaty of Saint Germain中被大幅削減領土及人口，最後變成一個只有約600萬人的小國，實力大大減弱。
B. 德國合併奧地利的經過：
於1938年2月，希特拉要求奧地利總理舒施尼格Schuschnigg答應德國的以下要求：特赦被囚禁的納粹黨員；任命奧地利納粹分子為內務部長及保安部長。同時，德軍壓陣於奧地利邊境，給予奧地利軍事壓力。
舒施尼格知道無力抵擋德國的入侵，遂嘗試以全民公投的方法保持奧地利的獨立性。然而，在軍事壓力及德國政府的施壓底下，舒施尼格被迫辭職並由一納粹分子上任。於裡應外合的情況底下，德軍兵不血刃地迅速佔領了奧地利。於3月10日，宣佈德、奧合併。
C. 德國合併奧地利的意義：
Ø 德國再一次成功違反《凡爾賽條約》的協議，與奧地利合併。
Ø 德國合併奧地利後，對捷克斯洛伐克形成三面圍堵之勢，使捷克斯洛伐克成為德國日後侵佔的目標。
Ø 面對德國的侵略行動，英、法再次展示出軟弱的一面，繼續以綏靖政策滿足德國的野心，助長了希特拉的氣燄。
24. Anschluss德國合併奧地利(1938)
A. Background and Reasons for Anschluss:
Germany recovered its military power through military constructions made during
1935-37 together with the establishment of military alliances. Germany was more confident in initiating more large-scale and aggressive expansions. Austria was forced to reduce its territory and population in Treaty of Saint Germain聖澤門條約, leading to the loss of strength as it became a small nation with 6 million people.
B. Process of Anschluss:
Hitler requested Austria's Prime Minister Schuschnigg舒施尼格 to accept the following conditions in February 1938: Releasing all imprisoned Nazists and appointing Austria's Nazists as Chancellor and Minister for Security. At the same time, German troops were set in Austria's boundary to provide military pressure.
Schuschnigg used referendum to ensure Austria's independence though he knew Austria could not stand Germany's invasion. Schuschnigg resigned and was taken over by a Nazist, leading to Austria being invaded by Germany within a short period of time. Austria's union with Germany was successful in 10th March.
C. Significance of Anschluss:
Ø Germany once again offended Treaty of Versailles in uniting with Austria.
Ø Czechoslovakia faced the situation of being 3-sided surrounded by Germany, making it being next invasion plan for Germany.
Ø Britain and France showed its weak side again in face of Germany's invasion with the continuation of appeasement policy in satisfying Germany's ambition.
25.慕尼黑會議Munich Conference (1938年)
A. 慕尼黑會議的背景及原因：
希特拉輕易吞併奧地利後，隨即將目標投放到蘇台德區Sudetenland。但由於捷克於蘇台德區佈下了35個師的軍力，加上捷克與法、俄有軍事防衛的協議，故以力取實為不智。但由於蘇台德區有300多萬日耳曼人居住，因此，為希特拉提出了最佳的侵略的藉口。於1938年9月，希特拉發表演說強烈批評捷克虐待境內的日耳曼人，亦引用「民族自決」的原則，提出合併蘇台德區的要求，並表示不惜以戰爭的手段以達成目的。
B. 事件的發展：
英國首相張伯倫Chamberlain恐懼德國的舉動會導致戰爭的爆發，故與法國總理達拉第Daladier飛往德國慕尼黑，與希特拉及墨索里尼舉行慕尼黑會議。最終，德、意、法、英達成協議，將屬於捷克的蘇台德區割讓予德國。事件中，捷克並未獲邀出席會議。於《慕尼黑協定》達成後，捷克表示強烈抗議，但基於英、法表示捷克若不接受協定，就沒有保衛捷克的義務，故迫使捷克於不甘願的情況下接受協定。
C. 慕尼黑會議的意義：
Ø 綏靖政策的代表例子。因張伯倫認為此次會議是綏靖政策的勝利，但諷刺的是，希特拉於1939年3月吞併捷克全境。
Ø 削弱了捷克的防衛能力。捷克原本於德捷的邊界駐有重兵，能大大拖延德國入侵捷克的進程。然而，慕尼黑會議割讓了蘇台德區予德國，加上會後波蘭及匈牙利趁火打劫，佔領了部分捷克的土地，使捷克的防衛能力受到削弱。
Ø 英、法於慕尼黑會議中犧牲捷克的行徑使蘇聯認為英、法將「禍水東引」redirect the troubles towards the east，把德國的擴張視線轉向東歐的蘇聯方向，導致蘇聯於日後與德國簽訂《互不侵略條約》Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact。
25. Munich Conference慕尼黑會議 (1938)
A. Background and Reasons for calling Munich Conference:
Hitler placed its target to invading Sudetenland蘇台德區 after taking Austria. Yet, it was unwise to take immediate actions as 35 divisions of soldiers were placed in Sudetenland by Czechoslovakia and Czechoslovakia had military defense agreement with France and Soviet Union. However, over 3 million Germanic people lived in Sudetenland, making it the best pretext for Hitler's invasion. Hitler made a speech about Czechoslovakia's abuse of Germanic people in September 1938 to ask for Sudetenland's union due to "national self-determination", stating that war would be one of its approaches.
B. Development of Crisis:
British Prime Minister Chamberlain張伯倫 feared that Germany would lead to outbreak of war, thus visiting Munich with France's Prime Minister Daladier達拉第. Munich Conference was held with Mussolini and Hitler. Agreement was made that Germany was granted Sudetenland. Czechoslovakia was not invited to the Conference, leading to its strong protest after the signature of Munich Agreement.
Yet, Czechoslovakia was forced to accept the agreement as Britain and France informed Czechoslovakia that they would not have obligation in protecting it if it did not accept the agreement
C. Significance of Munich Conference:
Ø Example of appeasement policy: though Chamberlain thought that the Conference was a success of appeasement policy, Germany ironically took over whole of Czechoslovakia in March 1939.
Ø Reduced Czechoslovakia's defense: Munich Conference directly granted Sudetenland to Germany though there was large amount of troops along German-Czechoslovakian boundaries which could greatly impede Germany's process in taking over Czechoslovakia. Moreover, Poland and Hungary invaded Czechoslovakia after the Conference, greatly reducing its defensive ability.
Ø Soviet Union thought that sacrifice of Sudetenland made by Britain and France was " redirect the troubles towards the east "禍水東引, making Germany's expansion to focus on Soviet Union, leading to the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact互不侵略條約.
26.德國吞佔捷克全境Germay’s occupation of the whole Czechoslovakia (1939年)
A. 德國吞併捷克的背景及原因：
德國吞併蘇台德區後，隨即計劃進一步吞併捷克Czechoslovakia全境。1939年3月，斯洛伐克Slovakia正值發生獨立運動，德國以保護捷克為由，派軍進駐斯洛伐克。及後，希特拉宣佈成立「波希米亞—摩爾達維亞保護國」Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia，使兩地成為德國的保護國。
B. 德國吞併捷克的意義：
Ø 德國首次以武力侵佔非日耳曼人聚居的地區，證明了希特拉的野心不僅限於收復所有日耳曼人聚居的土地。
Ø 英、法知道需要以強硬的軍事手段以阻止德國的擴張，故於1939年9月德國入侵波蘭後向德國發出最後通牒。
Ø 德、意知道兩國對捷克斯洛伐克和阿爾巴尼亞的侵略已經引起了英、法的猜忌，英、法可能會利用武力以阻止兩國的擴張，故德、意進一步加強軍事合作，簽訂《鋼鐵條約》Pact of Steel。
26. Germany’s occupation of the whole Czechoslovakia德國吞佔捷克全境 (1939)
A. Background and Reasons for Germany’s occupation of the whole Czechoslovakia:
Germany immediately planned to take over rest of Czechoslovakia捷克 after being granted Sudetenland. Germany used "protecting Czechoslovakia" as pretext to send troops to Slovakia斯洛伐克 in suppressing the independence campaign in March 1939. Hitler announced the establishment of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia波希米亞—摩爾達維亞保護國, making Czechoslovakia being the protectorate of Germany
B. Significance of Germany’s occupation of the whole Czechoslovakia:
Ø Germany used its military force to invade areas that are not inhabited by Germanic people for the first time, showing Hitler’s aggression did not only involve lands of Germanic people.
Ø Britain and France realized that strong military approach should be adopted to stop Germany’s expansion, thus they issued ultimatum to Germany after its expansion in September 1939.
Ø Germany and Italy knew that their invasion in Czechoslovakia and Albania had raised vigilance of Britain and France which may pose further military actions. Thus Germany and Italy signed Pact of Steel鋼鐵條約 in enhancing mutual military collaboration to fight against Britain and France.
27.意大利吞併阿爾巴尼亞Italy’s annexation of Albania (1939年)
A. 意大利吞併阿爾巴尼亞的背景：
意大利早於1926年已與阿爾巴尼亞簽訂《地拉那條約》Treaty of Tirana，使之成為其保護國Protectorate State。至希特拉吞併奧地利、蘇台德區及捷克斯洛伐克後，墨索里尼也不甘後人，於1939年4月入侵阿爾巴尼亞，數日內征服了阿爾巴尼亞。
B. 意大利吞併阿爾巴尼亞的意義：
Ø 雖然意大利的侵略未有受到英、法等國的武力阻止，但正正警惕起英、法對於侵略行動的關注。
Ø 德、意知道兩國對捷克斯洛伐克和阿爾巴尼亞的侵略已經引起了英、法的猜忌，英、法可能會利用武力以阻止兩國的擴張，故德、意進一步加強軍事合作，簽訂《鋼鐵條約》Pact of Steel。
27. Italy’s annexation of Albania意大利吞併阿爾巴尼亞 (1939)
A. Background of Italy’s annexation of Albania:
Treaty of Tirana地拉那條約 was signed in 1926 to confirm that Albania was the protectorate of Italy. Yet, Mussolini would like to show its military strength after Hitler occupied Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia and Austria. Italy thus annexed Albania within days in April 1939.
B. Significance of Italy’s annexation of Albania:
Ø Italy’s occupation was not stopped militarily by Britain and France, yet raised their awareness towards invasion plans of Italy.
Ø Germany and Italy knew that their invasion in Czechoslovakia and Albania had raised vigilance of Britain and France which may pose further military actions. Thus Germany and Italy signed Pact of Steel鋼鐵條約 in enhancing mutual military collaboration to fight against Britain and France.
28.德意簽訂《鋼鐵條約》Pact of Steel (1939年)
A. 《鋼鐵條約》的簽訂背景及原因：
由於柏林—羅馬—東京軸心只是外交協議，並不具有軍事條款。加上，德、意知道兩國對捷克斯洛伐克和阿爾巴尼亞的侵略已經引起了英、法的猜忌，英、法可能會利用武力以阻止兩國的擴張，故德、意希望進一步加強軍事合作，於1939年5月簽訂《鋼鐵條約》。
B. 《鋼鐵條約》的主要內容：
Ø 兩國於戰爭時互相援助，並加強軍事上的生產；
Ø 參與共同戰爭時，不得擅自與敵國停戰或議和；
C. 《鋼鐵條約》的意義：
Ø 軍事性的盟約顯示德、意已有開戰的準備。
Ø 日本未有包括在內，因日本認為同盟只應針對蘇聯，而非英、法，故為避免樹立更多的敵人而拒絕加入。
28. Signature of Pact of Steel鋼鐵條約 between Germany & Italy (1939)
A. Background and Reasons for signature of Pact of Steel:
Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis was simply a diplomatic agreement, yet there was absence of any military conditions. Germany and Italy would like to enhance mutual military collaboration as they knew there would possibly be military actions taken by Britain and France due to their occupation in Czechoslovakia and Albania. Pact of Steel was signed in May 1939.
B. Content of Pact of Steel:
Ø Mutual assistance to be provided during wartime with enhancement in military production.
Ø Signatories were not allowed to cease fire or draft peace settlements independently when joined in the same war.
C. Significance of Pact of Steel:
Ø The military-based pact reflected that Germany and Italy were prepared for wars.
Ø Japan was not included as Japan thought that the alliance should only focus on Soviet Union instead of Britain and France, thus rejected to join so as to prevent from having more enemies.
29.德蘇《互不侵犯條約》Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939年)
A. 《互不侵犯條約》的簽訂背景及原因：
德國於侵占捷克斯洛伐克後，已把波蘭視為下一個侵略的目標。但德國恐懼入侵波蘭會引起德、蘇的戰爭，最終重演一戰時德國腹背受敵的情況。因此，德國希望與蘇聯訂立互不侵犯的協定。與此同時，由於英、法與蘇聯不能真誠地建立防衛性的同盟，蘇聯更認為英、法於慕尼黑會議的舉動是「禍水東引」redirect the troubles towards the east，故為保障蘇聯的利益，蘇聯願意與德國達成不開戰的協議。最後，德、蘇於1939年8月簽訂《互不侵犯條約》。
B. 《互不侵略條約》的主要內容：
Ø 十年內不侵犯對方，並當簽署國與其他國家進行戰爭時，另一國需要保持中立；
Ø 日後東歐領土出現變動時，德國可取波蘭西部和立陶宛，蘇聯則可取波蘭東部、愛沙尼亞和芬蘭等地。
C. 《互不侵犯條約》的意義：
Ø 德國解除了腹背受敵的威脅(強國間)，於1939年9月1日入侵波蘭，導致第二次世界大戰爆發。
Ø 蘇聯與英、法的合作瓦解，蘇聯往後積極加強自身的軍力，以防止德國入侵。
Ø 《互不侵犯條約》並不穩固，德國於1941年偷襲蘇聯，使蘇聯加入戰爭。
29. Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact德蘇《互不侵犯條約》 (1939)
A. Background and Reasons for signing Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact:
Germany treated Poland as the next invasion target after invading Czechoslovakia. Yet, Germany feared that its invasion in Poland would lead to outbreak of German-Soviet war which became a repetition of WWI with Germany being defeated. Thus, Germany wished to sign Non-Aggression Pact with Soviet Union. At the same time, Soviet Union failed to construct defensive allies with Britain and France as Soviet Union thought that Britain and France was " redirect the troubles towards the east "禍水東引 in Munich Conference. Hence, Soviet Union agreed to sign Non-Aggression Pact with Germany to ensure Soviet Union's interest in August 1939
B. Content of Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact:
Ø Not invading each other within ten years, requiring neutrality when a signed nation broke out war with another nation(s).
Ø In case of territorial changes in East Europe, Germany could take western Poland and Lithuania, while Soviet Union could take eastern Poland, Estonia and Finland.
C. Significance of Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact:
Ø Germany prevented repetition of history as in WWI, and invaded Poland in 1 September 1939 that led to outbreak of WWII.
Ø Soviet Union stopped collaboration with Britain and France, and self-enhanced its military power to prevent Germany's invasion.
Ø Non-Aggression Pact was not strong as Germany attempted to attack Soviet Union in 1941 that made Soviet Union to take part in WWI.
30.德國突襲波蘭，二戰爆發(1939年)
A. 德國突襲波蘭的背景及原因：
波蘭是英、法的盟友，於1939年3月英國已向波蘭保證當其受到威脅時會給予援助，而法國更自1925年起已與波蘭有防衛條約。因此，德國有必要先侵佔波蘭，以消除德國與法國作戰時所面對的東邊威脅。加上，《凡爾賽條約》中割讓予波蘭的土地令東普魯士與德國本地分開。因此，希特拉也有必要侵佔波蘭以取回《凡爾賽條約》中割出的土地及使東普魯士與德國本土重新連接。
B. 德國突襲波蘭演變成第二次世界大戰的過程：
於1939年9月1日，德國不宣而戰，偷襲波蘭。英、法隨即向德國發出最後通牒，要求德軍撤出波蘭，但遭到希特拉的拒絕。於9月3日，英、法向德國宣戰，第二次世界大戰正式爆發。
30. Germany assaulting Poland, leading to outbreak of WWII (1939)
A. Background and Reasons for Germany assaulting Poland:
As the ally of Britain and France, Poland was ensured by Britain in March 1939 that assistance would be given to them in case of threat. France signed defensive treaty with Poland starting from 1925. Yet, Germany must first invade Poland to remove threat in the east when Germany broke out war with France. In addition, land granted to Poland as stated in Treaty of Versailles made the splitting of East Prussia away from Germany. Hence, Hitler thought it was necessary to first invade Poland to take back lands given away in Treaty of Versailles and linked East Prussia back to Germany.
B. Process of Germany assaulting Poland to the outbreak of WWII:
Germany assaulted Poland in 1st September 1939 without prior declaration. Britain and France issued ultimatum, requiring evacuation of German army away from Poland, but was rejected by Hitler. Britain and France declared war with Germany on 3rd September, signifying the official outbreak of Second World War
31.蘇聯加入第二次世界大戰(1941年)
A. 蘇聯加入第二次世界大戰的背景：
蘇聯於1939年與德國簽訂《互不侵犯條約》，因此使之未有被捲入戰爭。然而，德國與同盟國持續作戰耗損了德國的軍力，但蘇聯則因未有捲入戰爭而保留強大的軍事實力。希特拉知道蘇聯是遲早也必須面對的對手，而1941年初時德國於西面的戰事順利，故制定「巴巴羅薩作戰」Operation Barbarossa，希望利用「閃電戰」Biltzkrieg的策略，迅速打敗蘇聯。於1941年6月，德軍突襲蘇聯，德、蘇戰爭爆發。
B. 蘇聯加入第二次世界大戰的意義：
Ø 1939年簽訂的《互不侵犯條約》失效，德國違反條約而突襲蘇聯。
Ø 蘇聯被捲入第二次世界大戰，日後因戰後的利益分配問題，而導致冷戰的出現。
Ø 蘇聯並非希特拉估計般脆弱，其「閃電戰」策略未能成功打敗蘇聯，更最終被蘇聯的持久戰反擊成功。
31. Soviet Union joining the Second World War (1941)
A. Background of Soviet Union joining the Second World War:
Soviet Union was not involved in WWII due to the signature of Non-Aggression Pact.
However, Germany faced lack of military strength due to consistent wars with the Allies, yet Soviet Union remained strong military strength. Knowing that Soviet Union being a future target, together with success in western wars in early 1941, Hitler initiated Operation Barbarossa巴巴羅薩作戰 to use "Biltzkrieg"閃電戰 tactic to defeat Soviet Union. Germany assaulted Soviet Union in June 1941, making Soviet Union to join WWII.
B. Significance of Soviet Union joining the Second World War:
Ø Showed failure of Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact: Germany offended the Pact.
Ø Soviet Union's involvement in WWII led to emergence of cold war due to post-war issues in redistributing interests.
Ø Soviet Union was not as weak as Hitler imagined, its "Biltzkrieg" tactic could not successfully defeat Soviet Union and was even defeated.
32.大西洋憲章Atlantic Charter (1941年)
A. 大西洋憲章的簽署背景及原因：
由於德、蘇戰爭已經爆發，戰爭的規模及範疇一直擴大，美、英兩國需要進行會晤以進一步協調反攻軸心國的策略。因此，於1941年8月，美國總統羅斯福及英國首相邱吉爾於大西洋一艘軍艦上會晤。
B. 大西洋憲章的主要內容：
Ø 英、美兩國不尋求領土或其他方面的擴張；
Ø 尊重民族選擇及民族獨立的權利；
Ø 建立一個更普遍及更持久的國際維和組織。
C. 大西洋憲章的意義：
Ø 奠定了日後聯合國成立的基礎。
Ø 明顯地，美國傾向同盟國陣營，使日本認為美國是早晚也必需作戰的對手。
32. Atlantic Charter大西洋憲章 (1941)
A. Background and Reasons for signature of Atlantic Charter:
WWII expanded its scale and coverage with Soviet Union joining the War. Britain and United States had to meet up in setting tactics to fight back the Axis Powers. Roosevelt and Churchill met up on August 1941 on the Atlantic Ocean.
B. Main Content of Atlantic Charter:
Ø Britain and United States would not seek expansion in territory or other aspects.
Ø Respect the right of national self-determination and independence.
Ø Establish a more long-lasting peace-keeping organization with broader coverage.
C. Significance of Atlantic Charter:
Ø Established the basis for the establishment of United Nations.
Ø United States showed the tendency to assist the Allies, thus making Japan to think that United States was a future target to fight against with.
33.美國加入第二次世界大戰(1941年)
A. 美國加入第二次世界大戰的背景：
太平洋東岸的美國於二戰初期一直隔岸觀火，保留了強大的軍事實力。相反，日本與中國的戰爭持續消耗了日本的國力，日本希望侵占英、美、荷於東南亞的殖民地以獲取石油、米等資源。加上，日美關係已趨向惡劣，美國更於1941年7月凍結日本的在美資產，並實施石油禁運與經濟制裁。因此，與德國突襲蘇聯的原因相似，日本認為日、美戰爭是必須要進行的。於1941年12月，日本空軍偷襲美國於夏威夷珍珠港Pearl Harbor的海軍基地，太平洋戰爭爆發。
B. 美國加入第二次世界大戰的意義：
Ø 為同盟國的勝利注入強心針，對於1945年的勝利有著重大的貢獻。
Ø 戰後的議題令美、蘇出現嚴重的分歧，導致冷戰的出現。
33. United States joining the Second World War (1941)
A. Background of United States joining the Second World War:
United States did not join WWII initially that reserved its military strength - Yet, Japan's national strength was decreasing due to consistent wars with China - Japan wished to invade colonies of United States, Britain and Netherlands in Southeast Asia in gaining resources such as oil and rice. With worsening Japanese-US relationship, United States froze Japanese assets in United States in July 1941 and adopted oil embargo and economic sanction towards Japan. Japan thought that it was necessary to fight against United States given the similar reason as Germany assaulting Soviet Union, thus assaulted Pearl Harbour珍珠港 (naval base of United States in Hawaii), leading to outbreak of Pacific War.
B. Significance of United States joining the Second World War:
Ø Greatly contributed to the success of the Allies in 1945.
Ø Post-war issues led to great divergence between United States and Soviet Union, leading to the occurrence of Cold War.
34. 卡薩布蘭卡會議Casablanca Conference (1943年)
A. 卡薩布蘭卡會議的召開背景及原因：
於1943年1月，美國總統羅斯福及英國首相邱吉爾於摩洛哥的卡薩布蘭卡舉行會議，會議主要討論有關德國及意大利的對戰策略。
B. 卡薩布蘭卡會議的主要決議：
Ø 加強對德國潛艇的攻擊；
Ø 加強對意大利的攻擊；
Ø 迫使軸心國無條件投降。
C. 卡薩布蘭卡會議的意義：
Ø 對意大利的猛烈攻擊迫使意大利於1943年9月投降。
34. Casablanca Conference卡薩布蘭卡會議 (1943)
A. Background and Reasons for calling Casablanca Conference:
Casablanca Conference was held by President of United States Roosevelt and Prime Minister of Britain Churchill in Morocco in January 1943. The Conference mainly covered tactics in fighting against Germany and Italy.
B. Major decisions made in Casablanca Conference:
Ø To intensify attack made towards Germany’s submarines;
Ø To intensify attack made towards Italy;
Ø To force the Axis Powers to unconditionally surrender.
C. Significance of Casablanca Conference:
Ø Violent attack towards Italy made Italy surrender in September 1943.
35. 魁北克會議Quebec Conference (1943年)
A. 魁北克會議的召開背景及原因：
於1943年8月，美、英兩國領導人於於加拿大魁北克進行會晤，當年7月意大利墨索里尼被推翻下台，故兩國為了進一步討論戰略安排，舉行了魁北克會議。
B. 魁北克會議的主要決議：
Ø 繼續採取強烈攻擊意大利的策略，並商討了意大利的投降條件；
Ø 於德國投降後的一年內攻陷日本；
Ø 討論了解放法國的問題。
C. 魁北克會議的意義：
Ø 意大利於1943年9月投降。
35. Quebec Conference魁北克會議 (1943)
A. Background and Reasons for calling Quebec Conference:
Roosevelt and Churchill met up in Quebec, Canada in August 1943. United States and Britain discussed further war arrangements as Mussolini was thrown upon in July 1943
B. Major decisions of Quebec Conference:
Ø To continue its tactic in making violent attack towards Italy, and come up with Italy's conditions for surrender;
Ø To capture Japan a year after Germany's surrender;
Ø Discussed issues about France's liberation.
C. Significance of Quebec Conference:
Ø Violent attack towards Italy made Italy surrender in September 1943.
36. 莫斯科會議Moscow Conferences (1943年)
A. 莫斯科會議的召開背景及原因：
1942年11月至1943年3月間為戰局發展的分水嶺，因英、美成功登陸北非，英國在利比亞取得勝利，蘇聯於史太林格勒戰役中擊潰德軍，以及日本於西南太平洋的攻勢受到遏止均發生於此時期內。同盟國開始在戰場上取得主動權，為了更有效進行軍事佈署及協調軍事行動，美、英、蘇三國外交部長於1943年召開了莫斯科會議，後期中國代表也有加入會議。
B. 莫斯科會議的主要決議：
Ø 宣布有必要及早成立一個普遍性的國際組織，此決策成為組織聯合國的開端；
Ø 奧地利於戰後獲得獨立。
C. 莫斯科會議的意義：
Ø 改善了蘇聯與美、英兩國之間的關係。
Ø 奠定了日後聯合國成立的基礎。
36. Moscow Conferences莫斯科會議 (1943)
A. Background and Reasons for calling Moscow Conferences:
The period between November 1942 and March 1943 was the watershed of development of war status. United States and Britain successfully landed on North Africa with Britain's success in Libya. Soviet Union successfully defeated Germany in Battle of Stalingrad. Japan's invasion was greatly stopped in Southeastern Pacific Ocean. The Allies started to take hold of WWII in various battlefields, thus Ministers for Foreign Affairs of United States, Soviet Union and Britain called for Moscow Conferences for better military posture and more well-planned military actions - Representative from China also joined the Conferences.
B. Major decisions of Moscow Conferences:
Ø Announced the necessity in establishing a peace-keeping international organization, setting the basis for the establishment of United Nations;
Ø Austria was granted independence after war.
C. Significance of Moscow Conferences:
Ø Improved relationship between Soviet Union and Britain, United States.
Ø Established the basis for United Nations.
37. 開羅會議Cairo Conference (1943年)
A. 開羅會議的召開背景及原因：
於魁北克會議後，美國總統羅斯福Roosevelt希望召開美、英、蘇、中四國的首腦會議，但由於蘇聯領導人史太林Stalin拒絕出席有蔣介石參與的會議，故四國的首腦會議分兩次進行，一次是由羅斯福(美國)、邱吉爾Churchill (英國)及蔣介石Chiang Kai-shek (中國)於1943年11月埃及召開的開羅會議，另一次則由是羅斯福(美國)、邱吉爾(英國)及史太林(蘇聯)於1943年11月伊朗Iran召開的德黑蘭會議。
B. 開羅會議的主要決議：
Ø 日本歸還自1894年佔領的所有領土予中國；
Ø 日本歸還自第一次世界大戰後佔領的所有太平洋島嶼；
Ø 朝鮮於戰後獲得獨立。
C. 開羅會議的意義：
Ø 主要針對與日本於東亞及太平洋的戰事。
Ø 計劃了戰後東亞及太平洋的領土安排。
37. Cairo Conference開羅會議 (1943)
A. Background and Reasons for calling Cairo Conference:
After Quebec Conference, President of United States Roosevelt羅斯福 would like to call for 4-power conference with Soviet Union, Britain and China. Yet, as the leader of Soviet Union Stalin史太林 refused to join in conferences participated by Chiang Kai-Shek, thus the 4-power conference was held twice. Cairo Conference was held amongst Roosevelt (United States), Churchill邱吉爾 (Britain), Chiang Kai-Shek蔣介石 (China) in November 1943, while Tehran Conference was held amongst Roosevelt (United States), Churchill (Britain) and Stalin (Soviet Union) in Iran in November 1943.
B. Major decisions of Cairo Conference:
Ø Japan should return all invaded lands since 1894 to China;
Ø Japan should return all invaded Pacific Islands since WWI;
Ø North Korea was granted independence after war.
C. Significance of Cairo Conference:
Ø It focused on settling war affairs of Japan in East Asia and Pacific Ocean.
Ø It planned post-war territorial arrangements of East Asia and Pacific Ocean.
38. 德黑蘭會議Tehran Conference (1943年)
A. 德黑蘭會議的召開背景及原因：
於魁北克會議後，美國總統羅斯福希望召開美、英、蘇、中四國的首腦會議，但由於蘇聯領導人史太林拒絕出席有蔣介石參與的會議，故四國的首腦會議分兩次進行，一次是由羅斯福(美國)、邱吉爾(英國)及蔣介石(中國)於1943年11月埃及召開的開羅會議，另一次則由是羅斯福(美國)、邱吉爾(英國)及史太林(蘇聯)於1943年11月伊朗召開的德黑蘭會議。
B. 德黑蘭會議的主要決議：
Ø 成立一個新的國際和平組織以取代國際聯盟；
Ø 蘇聯於戰後可獲部分波蘭的領土及東普魯士；
Ø 英、法在1944年5月1日於西歐展開進攻；
Ø 蘇聯於對德戰爭結束後，將會參與對日本的作戰。
C. 德黑蘭會議的意義：
Ø 奠定了日後聯合國成立的基礎。
Ø 增加了蘇聯與英、美兩國的合作。
38. Tehran Conference德黑蘭會議 (1943)
A. Background and Reasons for calling Tehran Conference:
After Quebec Conference, President of United States Roosevelt would like to call for 4-power conference with Soviet Union, Britain and China. Yet, as the leader of Soviet Union Stalin refused to join in conferences participated by Chiang Kai-Shek, thus the 4-power conference was held twice. Cairo Conference was held amongst Roosevelt (United States), Churchill (Britain), Chiang Kai-Shek (China) in November 1943, while Tehran Conference was held amongst Roosevelt (United States), Churchill (Britain) and Stalin (Soviet Union) in Iran in November 1943.
B. Major decisions of Tehran Conference:
Ø A new peace-keeping organization should be established in replacement of League of Nations;
Ø Soviet Union could be granted some territory in Poland and East Prussia;
Ø Britain and France to start invasions in West Europe in 1st May 1944;
Ø Soviet Union to participate war with Japan after the end of war with Germany.
C. Significance of Tehran Conference:
Ø Improved relationship between Soviet Union and Britain, United States.
Ø Established the basis for United Nations.
39. 雅爾達會議Yalta Conference (1945年)
A. 雅爾達會議的召開背景及原因：
於1944年底，同盟國於歐洲東線及西線的反攻均十分順利。因此，羅斯福(美國)、邱吉爾(英國)及史太林(蘇聯)於1945年2月在蘇聯雅爾達進行會晤，以商討戰後的領土及相關事項。
B. 雅爾達會議的主要決議：
Ø 對德國：戰後的德國被劃分為四個區域，分別由美、英、法、蘇四國佔領；
Ø 對德國：德國被解除武裝，實現非軍事化及去納粹化；
Ø 對德國：需要為戰爭的破壞作出賠償；
Ø 對波蘭：波蘭獲得獨立，並進行民主選舉；
Ø 對日本：日本需要於戰後歸還庫頁島南部及千島群島予蘇聯；
Ø 宣佈2個月後於三藩市舉行「聯合國會議」；
Ø 蘇聯於德國投降後的三個月內加入對日本作戰。
C. 雅爾達會議的意義：
Ø 奠定了日後聯合國成立的基礎。
Ø 日後德國分裂成為東、西德，直至1990年。
Ø 顯示蘇聯與英、美兩國已經開始存有矛盾，蘇聯希望藉會議擴大其於東歐及遠東的利益；英、美則對蘇聯的擴張感到憂慮，欲遏止蘇聯。
39. Yalta Conference雅爾達會議 (1945)
A. Background and Reasons for calling Yalta Conference:
The Allies was successful in wars along the Eastern and Western Fronts of Europe in 1944. Roosevelt (United States), Churchill (Britain) and Stalin (Soviet Union) met up in Yalta, Soviet Union in February 1945 in discussing post-war territorial and other affairs
B. Major decisions of Yalta Conference:
Ø Germany: Post-war Germany should be divided into 4 districts which were to be occupied by United States, Britain, France and Soviet Union respectively;
Ø Germany: Germany should undergo demilitarization and denazification;
Ø Germany: Germany should compensate its destruction made during WWII;
Ø Poland: To be granted independence with democratic elections taking place;
Ø Japan: Japan should return Southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands to Soviet Union;
Ø “United Nations Conference” was announced to be held two months later in San Francisco;
Ø Soviet Union to join the war against Japan 3 months after the surrender of Germany.
C. Significance of Yalta Conference:
Ø Set up the basis for the establishment of United Nations.
Ø Germany to be divided into Western and Eastern Germany until 1990.
Ø It portrayed contradictions between Soviet Union and Britain, United States: Britain and United States wished to stop Soviet Union’s wish to expand its interest in Eastern Europe and Far East with anxiety expressed.
40. 舊金山會議San Francisco Conference (1945年)
舊金山會議的主要概況：
於1944年美、英、蘇三國已於美國華盛頓舉行了敦巴頓橡園會議，對於聯合國的大致安排已經商討完成。直至1945年2月的雅爾達會議，三國就聯合國有關投票的否決權問題達成一致共識後，便安排於1945年4月舉行舊金山會議。此會議多達50個國家參與，皆為同盟國成員。大會通過了《聯合國憲章》，正式成立了聯合國。
40. San Francisco Conference舊金山會議 (1945)
Major happenings in San Francisco Conference:
Dumbarton Oaks Conference (Britain, United States and Soviet Union) (1944) was held in Washington to settle brief arrangements for establishing United Nations. Yalta Conference enabled the three nations to reach consensus about United Nations' veto power. San Francisco Conference was held in April 1945 with 50 participating countries which were all the Allies. "United Nations Charter" was passed through and officially established United Nations
41. 波茨坦會議Potsdam Conference (1945年)
A. 波茨坦會議的召開背景及原因：
德國於1945年5月投降後，杜魯門(美國)、艾德禮Attlee (英國)及史太林(蘇聯)於德國波茨坦舉行會議以商討戰後的各項安排。
B. 波茨坦會議的主要決策：
Ø 對德國：戰後的德國被劃分為四個區域，分別由美、英、法、蘇四國佔領；
Ø 對德國：納粹黨被取締，並在盟軍的指導下建立民主；
Ø 對德國：所有曾被希特拉侵略的土地應予以歸還；
Ø 對德國：德國須以其工業設施作為戰爭賠款；
Ø 對德國：實行非軍事化，所有軍事生產設施及武器應予以拆除；
Ø 對日本：日本投降後將由盟軍暫時佔領。
C. 波茨坦會議的意義：
Ø 確立了對德國的戰後安排及對日本於戰後的短期安排。
Ø 日後德國分裂成為東、西德，直至1990年。
Ø 顯示蘇聯與英、美兩國已經開始存有矛盾，蘇聯希望藉會議擴大其於東歐及遠東的利益；英、美則對蘇聯的擴張感到憂慮，欲遏止蘇聯。
41. Potsdam Conference波茨坦會議 (1945)
A. Background and Reasons for calling Potsdam Conference:
Germany surrendered in May 1945. Truman (United States), Attlee艾德禮 (Britain) and Stalin called Potsdam Conference to discuss post-war arrangements
B. Major decisions in Potsdam Conference:
Ø Germany: Post-war Germany should be divided into 4 districts which were to be occupied by United States, Britain, France and Soviet Union respectively;
Ø Germany: Nazi Party should be replaced with democracy introduced under the guidance of the Allies;
Ø Germany: All lands invaded by Hitler should be returned;
Ø Germany: All industrial infrastructures should be considered as war indemnities;
Ø Germany: Demilitarization was to be adopted with the removal of military infrastructures and weapons;
Ø Japan: To be temporarily occupied by the Allies after its surrender.
C. Significance of Potsdam Conference:
Ø Confirmed post-war arrangements of Germany and temporary arrangements for Japan.
Ø Germany to be divided into Western and Eastern Germany until 1990.
Ø It portrayed contradictions between Soviet Union and Britain, United States: Britain and United States wished to stop Soviet Union’s wish to expand its interest in Eastern Europe and Far East with anxiety expressed.
42. 第二次世界大戰結束(1945年)
A. 第二次世界大戰結束的背景及原因：
意大利早於1943年9月便宣佈投降，然而，德國及日本仍然繼續作戰。直至1945年5月，蘇軍及美、英、法聯軍攻陷柏林，德國投降，歐洲戰事也告結束。然而，亞洲的日本仍然尚未投降，至8月，美國先後向日本廣島及長崎投入兩枚原子彈，使日本宣佈無條件投降，第二次世界大戰正式結束。
42. End of Second World War (1945)
A. Background and Reasons for the end of Second World War:
Germany and Japan continued to fight in WWII after Italy's surrender in September 1943. Germany surrendered in May 1945 when the joint-army (formed by Soviet Union, United States, Britain and France) attacked and took control of Berlin with an end in European wars. Yet, Japan did not surrender. United States then threw two atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, forcing Japan to surrender without conditions and signified the end of Second World War.
43. 聯合國的成立Establishment of the United Nations (1945年)
A. 聯合國的的成立背景：
聯合國是第二次世界大戰後設立的國際組織，正式成立於1945年10月。當時共有51個國家承諾通過國際合作和集體安全來維護和平、發展國家間友好關係、促進社會進步、提高生活水準和保護人權。
B. 聯合國有四個主要宗旨：
Ø 維持世界各地和平；
Ø 發展國家之間的友好關係；
Ø 幫助各國共同努力，改善貧困人民的生活，戰勝饑餓、疾病和掃除文盲，並鼓勵尊重彼此的權利和自由；
Ø 成為協調各國行動，實現上述目標的中心。
C. 聯合國的主要機構 – 會員大會General Assembly：
大會是聯合國的主要審議機構，包括聯合國的所有成員國，它提供了一個在憲章所涉及的國際問題進行多邊性討論的全方位的獨特論壇。
D. 聯合國的主要機構 – 安全理事會Security Council：
安全理事會的主要工作在於維護國際和平與安全。理事會成立初期分別由5個「常任理事國」(英、美、蘇、中、法)及6個「非常任理事國」組成，後來將「非常任理事國」增至10個。常任理事國擁有否決權，能否決其不接受的決議；非常任理事國則由會員大會選出，沒有否決權，任期為2年。
E. 聯合國的主要機構 – 國際法庭International Court of Justice：
國際法庭為聯合國主要司法機關, 作用在於依照國際法解決各國向其提交的法律爭端，並就正式認可的聯合國機關和專門機構提交的法律問題提供諮詢意見。
F. 聯合國的主要機構 – 經濟及社會理事會Economic and Social Council：
經社理事會關注的是世界的經濟、社會和環境挑戰。理事會成立於1946年，是根據《聯合國憲章》設立的機構，是討論和辯論這類問題以及發佈政策建議的論壇。
43. Establishment of United Nations聯合國的成立 (1945)
A. Background of establishment of United Nations:
United Nations was the international organization set up after WWII in October 1945. 51 countries pledged to achieve peace through international cooperation and collective security, as well as develop mutual positive relationships, promote social advancements, uplift quality of life and protect human rights.
B. Four Objectives of United Nations:
Ø To keep peace throughout the world;
Ø To develop friendly relations among nations;
Ø To help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, diseases and illiteracy, and to encourage respect for each other's rights and freedom;
Ø To be a centre for organizing the actions of nations to achieve these goals.
C. Main organ of United Nations – General Assembly會員大會:
General Assembly serves as the major adjudicating body of United Nations that consists of all member nations. It serves as an all-round forum for making multilateral discussions on international issues under the Charter.
D. Main organ of United Nations – Security Council安全理事會:
Its major aim was to safeguard international peace and security. It consisted of 5 permanent member nations (Britain, United States, Soviet Union, China and France) and 6 non-permanent member nations (increased to 10 afterwards). Permanent member nations possess veto power that could overthrow non-acceptable decisions. Non-permanent member nations were elected from General Assembly with a 2-year period and no veto power.
E. Main organ of United Nations – International Court of Justice國際法庭:
It serves as a major judicial department of United Nations. It aims to resolve judicial disputes handed from each nation in accordance with International Law. It aims to provide advices for legal affairs raised by United Nations departments and organizations.
F. Main organ of United Nations – Economic and Social Council經濟及社會理事會:
The Council concerns challenges related world’s economy, society and environment. It was established in 1946 in accordance with the Charter. It serves as a forum discussing and debating the aforementioned issues and issuing policy advices.
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