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1920年代在什麼程度上可被視為日本歷史的轉捩點？試參考20世紀上半葉的歷史，解釋你的答案。
立場 1920年代對日本而言是影響重大的十年。經歷1920年代後，日本出現了天壤懸隔的轉變，大程度上是日本歷史的轉捩點。 // 架構以下將先討論政治、經濟、外交等方面的轉變，然後再分析教育及軍事方面的延續。
主旨句 政治方面，日本政治由1920年代前走向民主化，轉變為之後走向軍國主義化，是為轉捩點。 // 核心點前的情況於1920年代前，日本政治正逐步民主化，例如於1913年出現了第一次護憲運動，迫使政府需要廢除「軍部大臣現役武官制」，避免內閣再受軍部掌控。甚至，至1925年更加通過「普通選舉法」，允許年滿25歲的男性就擁有選舉權，大大提高了下議院的人民代表性。 // 核心點影響及核心點後的情況然而，由1920年代中後期，隨著政黨日趨腐敗，軍國主義者開始抬頭，例如在1927年軍國主義田中義一已獲任為首相。至1930年代，軍國主義進一步蠶食日本政治，取得政權。例如1932年「五一五事件」後，首相全由軍人出任，標誌著政黨政治的終結；1936年「二二六事件」後，「軍部大臣現役武官制」恢復，軍人再次操控內閣。至1940年，日本更成立了「大政翼贊會」以取締其他政黨，日本正式成為一黨專政國家。 // 對比相比之下，就發展趨勢而言，1920年代中期前，日本政治是走向民主化的發展，內閣權力提高，人民的權利增加，但至1920年代中後期開始，日本政治的民主化程度退減，取而代之的軍國主義勢力抬頭，進一步掌握日本政治，日本正式成為軍國主義國家，可見是日本政治發展的轉捩點。
經濟方面，日本經濟由急速發展走向經濟衰退，為一轉捩點。1920年代前，日本經濟發展欣欣向榮。其於1904-05年日俄戰爭中擊敗俄國，取得了中國東北的殖民地利益，及後更於一次大戰大期趁西方列強專注戰事而壟斷了中國市場，結果使日本貿易額急速上升，經濟繁榮發展。然而，踏入1920年代，隨著西方列強重返中國市場，加上日本接連陷入經濟危機，包括1923年關東大地震造成約300億美元的經濟損失；1927年時出現銀行危機，多達30間銀行倒閉；1929年的世界經濟大蕭條嚴重打擊日本經濟，大量工廠倒閉。結果，於1930年代初的日本經濟千瘡百孔，失業人數更高達300萬人。儘管日本對中國的侵略有助取得了更多資源，但自1937年起日本全面對中國開戰，軍費開支大增，於1944年時更高達99%軍事開支，直接拖跨了日本經濟，加上戰時的破壞，日本經濟陷入蕭條。相比之下，就發展趨勢而言，1920年代前的日本經濟是急速發展，經濟發展十分理想，但自1920年代經歷多次經濟危機後，經濟陷入困境，再加上1930年代末的戰爭形勢影響，經濟一直走向下坡。可見，1920年代是日本經濟史的轉捩點。
外交方面，日本外交發展由與資本主義國家交好改為與極權國家交好，是為轉捩點。1920年代前，日本外交上是與資本主義國家為盟，例如早於1902年日本已與英國結成「英日同盟」；由資本主義國家為主導的國聯(1920年)中，日本也是常任理事國。然而，1920年代起，隨著日本國力日漸強大，資本主義國家對日本的猜忌及針對與日俱增，例如於華盛頓會議(1921-22年)時迫使日本交出中國山東的利益；美國的《排外法案》(1924年)禁止日本人在內的黃種人移民到美國。結果，日本與資本主義國家關係日漸敵對，此舉一方面惡化了雙方關係，例如日本於1933年退出國聯。同時，也有助軍國主義者上台，進一步發展與其他極權國家的關係，例如於1937年日本與德、意簽定《柏林—羅馬—東京軸心》，確立三國的同盟關係，自此日本外交上與極權國家靠攏，更於二次大戰時與資本主義國家交戰。相比之下，就外交關係而言，日本於1920年代與資本主義國家關係友好，建立了緊密的友好關係，但1920年代日本屢屢受到資本主義國家的針對及歧視，令日本外交轉向與極權國家交好，更於往後二次大戰時與資本主義國家交戰，可見日本外交方向出現了根本性轉變。
由上可見，日本在政治、經濟、外交出現了根本性的轉變。然而，在教育及軍事方面則並非轉捩點。
教育方面，日本於1920年代前後均有著高教育水平的特徵，同時也是思想灌輸，並非是轉捩點。於20世紀初，日本教育水平甚高，其於1907年已經將強制性教育的期限由4年提昇為6年，日本適齡兒童的入學率更高達97%。同時，當時日本政府會灌輸忠君愛國思想，例如於《教育敕語》中指出教育理想並非個人的自我改進，反而是個人對國家的服務。至1920年代，日本的教育持續發展，更進一步發展至高等教育。於1931年為止，日本就有約9,000人獲得博士銜頭，教育發展進一步延伸至大學的發展。同時，隨著軍人政府上台，日本對於教育的思想控制也進一步加強，例如在學校強行引入軍事訓練(1938年)，同時也開除宣揚人權及自由思想的老師，使教育受到嚴厲的控制。相比之下，1920年代前後日本的教育水平均是十分高，教育發展由基礎進一步擴展至高等，此乃按照原有基礎上進一步發展，並非是轉捩點。同時，日本政府於20世紀上半葉同樣牢牢控制教育的方向。因此，教育上的發展只是延續而非轉捩點。
軍事方面，日本一向積極發展軍事，此為延續而非轉捩點。於1920年代前，日本已經積極發展軍事，例如在海軍方面，日本於20世紀初已自行研發先進艦隻的生產，同時，在陸軍方面，日本於1906年已有13個配備先進武備的正規師團，軍事實力不容忽視，更於日俄戰爭(1904-05年)中擊敗俄國。至1920年代，儘管政黨政治出現，但日本對軍事發展的投入程度並未退減，例如日本在1922年建造出世界第一艘完工服役的標準航空母艦「鳳翔號」。及後，至1930年代，隨著軍人進一步控制了日本政治，並且加緊對中國的侵略，日本的軍事發展有增無減，例如1938年通過《國家總動員法》將70%開支投放於軍事，使日本軍事實力大大加強，如在空軍方面共生產了多達10430架零式戰鬥機(太平洋戰爭期間)，日本的軍事實力達致巔峰時期。相比之下，就軍事發展而言，日本於1920年代前均十分重視軍事發展，投放大量資源，軍事實力十分強大，而1920年代後日本只是進一步加強軍事的發展，並無出現根本性的轉變，因此是延續而非轉捩點。
總括而言，儘管日本在教育及軍事方面只是延續。然而，日本狀況受著政治、經濟、外交等方面的影響而出現了翻天覆地的巨變，使日本在1930年代變得與1920年代截然不同，故在大程度上是轉捩點。
To what extent could the 1920s be regarded as a turning point in Japanese history? Explain your answer with reference to the first half of the 20th century.
The 1920s was a decade of significant importance to Japan. With the sweeping changes in Japan during these ten years, the 1920s was a turning point in Japanese history to a large extent. This essay is going to discuss the changes in political, economic and diplomatic aspects, and examine the continuities in educational and military aspects.
Politically speaking, Japan was in its transition to democracy before the 1920s and moved towards militarism after that, showing that the decade was a turning point. Before the 1920s, Japan was taking its course of democratization. For example, the First Constitution Protection Movement第一次護憲運動 in 1913 pressurized the government to abolish the Military Ministers to be Active-Duty Officers Law軍部大臣現役武官制, which protected the Cabinet from military intervention. In 1925, the General Election Law普通選舉法 was also promulgated to give all men aged 25 or above the right to vote, greatly enhancing the representativeness of the lower house. However, since the mid-late 1920s, the militarists were on the rise against the backdrop of the incompetency of political parties, as exemplified by the rise to presidency of militarist leader Tanaka Giichi田中義一 in 1927. In the 1930s, militarism further corroded Japan’s politics and became the ruling ideology. For instance, the May 15th Incident五一五事件 of 1932, after which generals occupied the position of Prime Minister, marked the end of party politics. After the February 26th Incident二二六事件 in 1936, the military was again able to manipulate the Cabinet with the restoration of the Military Ministers to be Active-Duty Officers Law. In 1940, the Imperial Rule Assistance Association大政翼贊會 was established as a replacement of all other political parties, making Japan genuinely a country ruled by one-party dictatorship. In comparison, in terms of the direction of development, before the mid-1920s, Japan was moving towards democracy with greater power for the Cabinet and more rights for the people; however, after the mid-1920s, democratization in Japan lost its momentum, the rise of militarism followed and Japan subsequently became a militarist country. Therefore, the decade was a turning point for Japan’s politics.
Economically speaking, the change from rapid development to recession in Japan’s economy proved the period concerned a turning point. Before the 1920s, the Japanese economy thrived and boomed. Japan took over colonial interests in Northeast China after defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War日俄戰爭 of 1904-05, and monopolized the Chinese market during the First World War when the Western powers were preoccupied with wars. These opportunities led to the surge in trade and substantial economic development. However, in the 1920s, the Western powers returned to the competition for the Chinese market, and there were several economic crises for Japan, including the Great Kanto Earthquake關東大地震 of 1923 costing approximately US$30 billion, the Bank Crisis銀行危機 of 1927 leading to the closure of more than 30 banks, and the Great Depression經濟大蕭條 of 1929 with many factories shut down. As a result, Japan’s economy was ailing in the early 1930s with as many as 3 million people unemployed. The invasion of China did bring Japan more resources, but its total war effort against China since 1937 had caused a surge in military spending, which accounted for a whopping 99% of its national budget in 1944. Coupled with wartime destruction, Japan’s economy was overwhelmed and slipped into recession. In comparison, in terms of development trend, Japan’s economy developed rapidly and promisingly before the 1920s, but it suffered a downturn after several economic crises in the 1920s and remained on decline due to war efforts in the late 1930s. Therefore, the 1920s was a turning point for Japan’s economy.
Diplomatically speaking, Japan’s diplomatic preference changed from capitalist countries to totalitarian countries and this transition proved the decade a turning point. Before the 1920s, Japan was an ally of many capitalist states as exemplified by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance英日同盟 established in 1902. Japan was also one of the Permanent Members常任理事國 of the Council of the League of Nations國聯(1920) whose membership was predominantly capitalist. However, since the 1920s, other capitalist countries showed increasing suspicion and discrimination against Japan owing to its growing national strength. For example, Japan was forced to give up its concessions in Shandong at the Washington Conference華盛頓會議(1921-22), and Japanese people were denied immigration to America together with other yellow-skinned people according to the American Exclusion Act排外法案(1924). The unfair treatment led to growing hostility between Japan and capitalist countries, which aggravated their relationship as illustrated by Japan’s withdrawal from the League in 1933, and promoted the rise of militarism in favour of a more friendly relationship with other totalitarian countries. For example, Japan formed the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis柏林—羅馬—東京軸心 with Germany and Italy in 1937 to formally confirm their partnership. Since then, Japan cooperated with other totalitarian countries and fought the Second World War against capitalist countries. In comparison, in terms of foreign relations, Japan remained close and friendly relationship with capitalist countries by the 1920s; however, after being repeatedly discriminated by capitalist countries in the 1920s, Japan became friendly with totalitarian countries and even fought the Second World War against capitalist countries. This was a fundamental change in Japan’s diplomatic preference.
From the above discussion, there were fundamental changes in Japan in political, economic and diplomatic aspects. However, the decade was not a turning point in educational and military aspects.
In educational aspect, Japan had high education standard and emphasized indoctrination before and after the 1920s, and the decade was thus not a turning point. In the early 20th century, Japan already had a high education level with its compulsory education extended from 4 to 6 years in 1907, as represented by its national enrolment rate of 97%. Also, the Japanese government attempted to promote loyalty and patriotism through indoctrination. For example, the Imperial Rescript on Education教育敕語 stated that education was not a self-improvement process but the service provided by the individuals to the state. In the 1920s, Japan’s education continued to develop and the scope was extended to tertiary education. By 1931, the title of doctor was granted to about 9000 people. In addition, the military takeover led to a tighter grip on education as illustrated by the unconsented introduction of military trainings at schools and dismissal of teachers promoting human rights and liberal thoughts. In comparison, education in Japan remained at a high level before and after the 1920s and the scope of educational development further extended from elementary education to tertiary education. Such extension was based on the existing foundation and did not constitute a turning point. Also, the Japanese government had absolute control over education throughout the first half of the 20th century. Therefore, the 1920s was a decade of continuity instead of a turning point.
In military aspect, Japan had always been developing its military power actively and the decade showed continuities instead of changes. Before the 1920s, Japan already had an aspiration for military build-up. As for navy, Japan had started research and development of advanced warships since the early 20th century. In terms of army, there were 13 infantry divisions equipped with modern weapons in Japan in 1906. The strength of Japanese army was too great to ignore and allowed Japan to defeat Russia in the Russo-Japanese War日俄戰爭(1904-05). In the 1920s, despite the rise of party politics, Japan’s devotion to military build-up continued unabated as proven by the completion of the world’s first standard aircraft carrier named Hosho鳳翔號 in 1922. As Japan entered the 1930s, its military development sped up even more with the military takeover and its further invasion of China. For example, the National Mobilization Law國家總動員法 was passed in 1938 to allocate 70% of its national budget for military purposes, greatly enhancing Japan’s military strength as exemplified by the 10430 A6M Zero Fighters零式戰鬥機 produced (during the Pacific War). Japan reached the peak of its military strength. In comparison, in terms of military development, Japan placed great emphasis on military build-up before and after the 1920s. With the substantial resources provided, Japan was powerful in military terms. Since Japan only further promoted its military development after the 1920s without fundamental changes, the decade was therefore a period of continuity instead of a turning point.
In conclusion, despite continuities in educational and military aspects, Japan in the 1930s showed drastic changes in political, economic and diplomatic aspects and was clearly different from what it had been in the 1920s. Therefore, the 1920s was a turning point to a large extent.
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