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1930年代中葉的中國在什麼程度上是一個現代化國家？
定義 現代化指一國家或地區成功擺脫落後及封建，本質上達致先進﹑文明的狀況。 // 架構 雖然南京政府積極推動中國現代化的建設，但至1930年代中葉，中國在政治﹑經濟﹑教育、司法及外交方面均未能達致現代化，僅在社會上存有現代化的特徵。 // 立場 因此，1930年代的中國只在小程度上可被視為是一個現代化國家。
主旨句 政治方面，1930年代中葉的中國並未達致現代化。 // 標準 現代化政體應具備民選的性質，並容許其他政黨的存在。 // 段落內容 然而，於1930年代中葉的中國，此等特徵並未有出現。雖然南京政府按孫中山的《建國大綱》逐步將中國由軍政的階段推至訓政及憲政。但憲政階段因中日戰爭(1937)爆發而被推遲至1946年才正式通過，中國當時仍然停留於訓政階段，即使嘗試推行五權分立，但人民仍然缺乏選舉權，選舉制度並未能於中國確立。加上，南京政府奉行以黨治國的方針，實行一黨專政，排除異己，不斷進行剿共的行動，實缺乏現代化多黨制的特徵。 // 小結 可見，1930年代中葉的中國政體並未出現民選的性質，而且存在一黨專政的專制統治特徵，故並未達致現代化。
經濟方面，中國的經濟狀況與現代化仍然存有一定的差距。現代化的經濟除了高生產力外，亦需要均衡地發展。儘管南京政府積極推動商業改革，改革金融幣制，於1935年以紙幣取代銀元，又通過經濟法規，如《交易所法》﹑《度量衡法》，營造了趨向完善的商業環境。同時，於工業方面也積極扶助本地工業，又擴建鐵路，如1936年通車的粵漢鐵路，使工業也得以發展。然而，中國的經濟並未能達致真正的現代化，因少數財閥(尤以四大家族)壟斷中國的經濟，使中﹑小企業難以發展。此外，中國當時仍然為一農業社會，大部分人口從事農業活動，但農業生產就缺乏機器的投入，生產力偏低。加上，1937年中日戰爭的爆發更使不少地區的商業活動停止，故中國於當時的經濟狀況實並未能完全稱得上為現代化。可見，1930年代中國的經濟仍然偏重農業，但農業生產力低，經濟亦壟斷於財閥手中，並不能實現現代化。
教育方面，1930年代中葉的中國並未實現現代化。現代化的教育制度需要完善的學制，適齡兒童均享有接受教育的權利及機會。雖然南京政府興建大量中﹑小學，也於於1932年頒布《義務教育法》，計劃為國民提供免費基礎教育，以令更多的人口獲受教育。及後，於1933年，又先後頒布小學規程﹑中學規程及國外留學規程，令中國教育制度變得更加完善。然而，中國教育只能在小程度上實現現代化，因1930年代中葉的中國仍然存在十分嚴重的文盲問題，佔大部分的農村人口仍然未有接受教育的機會，加上資金問題，《義務教育法》並未有貫徹執行。因此，即使中國教育制度漸趨完善，但大多國民並未有真正接受教育，中國於教育現代化的道路上仍然處於起步階段。可見，雖然中國教育制度已趨向現代化，但由文盲問題仍然嚴重，故並不能稱得上是現代化。
司法方面，中國的司法狀況尚未達致現代化。現代化的司法應有健全及獨立的司法制度，以及公平﹑公正及公開的審訊過程。雖然南京政府成立司法院，並且頒布新的法律，如《公司法》﹑《破產法》等，但此並未為中國建立現代化的司法體系。因外國仍然擁有治外法權，不平等條約並未於1930年代中葉完全被廢除，中國尚未擁有完整而獨立﹑自主的司法體系。加上，中國官員的貪污問題仍然嚴重，令司法制度難以在公平的情況下進行。更甚，國民黨的反共產行動也違背現代化的司法制度，其大肆搜捕及私下審判共產黨員，實有違公正及公開的現代化司法特徵。可見，中國司法的體系趨向現代化，但本質上尚未達致現代化。
外交方面，1930年代中葉的中國外交並不能稱得上是現代化。現代化國家應與外國有平等的外交地位，受到其他國家尊重。儘管南京政府致力提高中國的國際地位，及廢除外國在華的不平等待遇，如於1926-30年間收復漢口﹑廈門等的英國租界及於1930年收回關稅自主權，令中國的外交地位有所提昇。然而，中國外交仍然處於不平等的狀況，因不平等條約仍然束縛中國，外國也保留在華的治外法權，不平等的狀況並未有於1930年代中葉得以結束。此外，中國不單未能保持獨立自主，更成為日本侵略的目標，於1937年全面入侵中國，國家主權未有被尊重。可見，中國外交地位雖然有所提昇，但仍然未達致平等外交，故不能被視為是一個現代化國家。
雖然1930年代中葉的中國在多個方面均未能實現現代化，但在社會方面則有著現代化的特徵。
社會方面，1930年代中葉的中國基本上為一現代化的社會。現代化的社會強調公民責任，標榜自由和平等，及保障基本人權。事實上，南京政府早於1920年代末已推行改革，促進社會現代化，如其於1929年已通過《民權法規》，保障公民的基本權利。此外，為促進平等及自由的觀念，南京政府秉承民國初年的措施，禁止纏足﹑買賣奴婢，又以點頭代叩頭，以「先生」代「大人」﹑「老爺」等稱呼，使社會變得自由及平等化。此外，南京政府於1934年開展新生活運動，提倡「禮﹑義﹑廉﹑恥」等傳統美德，有助喚醒民族醒覺和共融合作的精神，培訓公民意識。同時，也有助改善國民衛生，使社會變得更加健康。可見，1930年代的中國社會大致能達到現代化。
總括而言，1930年代中葉的中國正邁向現代化，雖然已逐步落實現代化的體制，但傳統的本質就仍然根深柢固，故只在小程度上成為一個現代化國家。
To what extent was China modernized by the mid-1930s?
A country or region that is modernized has gotten rid of backwardness and feudalism and is essentially modern and civilized. Despite various attempts at modernization by the Nanjing government, China was not modernized in political, economic, educational, judicial and diplomatic aspects by the mid-1930s and showed features of modernization in social aspect only. Therefore, China was modernized in the period concerned to a small extent only.
Politically, China did not achieve modernization by the mid-1930s. A modern form of government should be elected and allow the existence of political parties. Yet, these characteristics were not found in China in the mid-1930s. True, the Nanjing government progressed from the stage of military rule to political tutelage and finally became constitutional in accordance with Sun’s ‘Fundamentals of National Reconstruction’. Nevertheless, the establishment of constitutional government was postponed until 1946 due to the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937), which means that China was still in the period of political tutelage at that time. Notwithstanding the attempt of separation of powers, suffrage was not granted and election system was missing. Also, it adopted one-party dictatorship and eliminated dissidents by purging the communists. Multi-party system, a characteristic of modernization, was absent there. These show that the Chinese government in the mid-1930s lacked electoral elements and displayed signs of one-party dictatorship. Therefore, the nation was not modernized.
Economically, China’s economic condition was far beyond the standard of modernisation. Economic modernisation does not only mean high productivity but also balanced economic development. The Nanjing government implemented economic reforms in the monetary system by replacing silver dollars with banknotes in 1935. Economic regulations like Exchange Act and Weights and Measures Act were passed to create a sound economic environment. Also, it assisted the local industries and extended railways like the Guangdong-Hankou Railway opened in 1936, which helped develop the industry. Yet, China’s economy was not really modernised as it was dominated by plutocrats (especially the “Big Four Families”), hindering the development of small and medium enterprises. Besides, China was still an agricultural society that most people engaged in agricultural activities. Yet, productivity remained low without introducing machines. Moreover, the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 halted commercial activities in many areas. Thus, China did not really achieve economic modernisation. In the 1930s, China’s economy was modernised to a small extent.
Educationally, China in the mid-1930s failed to achieve modernization. Educational modernisation is that the school system should be sound and most people have the right to receive education. The Nanjing government built many secondary and primary schools and passed the Law of Compulsory Education in 1932 which aimed to provide people with free elementary education to allow more people to be educated. Later, regulations for primary, secondary education and overseas study were issued in 1933. The education system in China became more mature. Yet, China was educationally modernised to a small extent only. In the mid-1930s, the problem of illiteracy was still serious as most rural population were deprived of the chance to receive education. Also, the Law of Compulsory Education was not actualised thoroughly due to limited capital. Thus, although the education system in China became more mature, most people did not receive education. Educational modernisation in China was still in the beginning stage. Therefore, although the education system was becoming modernised, with serious illiteracy, China was modernised to a small extent.
Judicially, China’s judiciary condition was not modernized. Judicial modernisation means there should be a sound and independent judicial system and trials should be fair, just and open. Although the Nanjing government set up the Judicial Yuan and passed new laws such as Company Law and Bankruptcy Act, China did not have a modernised legal system. As extraterritoriality and unequal treaties were not abolished in the mid-1930s, China did not have a complete, independent and autonomous judicial system. Also, the judicial system could not guarantee fairness due to serious corruption among Chinese officials. Worse still, Kuomintang’s anti-communist acts were against judicial modernisation. It caught and privately purged the communists, which was against the feature of justice and openness in a modernised judicial system. Therefore, the judicial system in China became more modernised but it was actually not modernised in nature. China was judicially modernised to a small extent..
Diplomatically, China’s diplomacy in the mid-1930s could not be regarded as modernized. Diplomatic modernisation means the country should have equal international status with foreign countries and should be respected by others. The Nanjing government endeavoured to enhance China’s international status and abolish unequal treaties with foreign countries. During 1926-30, it recovered British concessions at Hankou and Xiamen; tariff autonomy was recognised in 1930, boosting China’s diplomatic status. Yet, China’s diplomacy still suffered from inequality. China was still bound by unequal treaties and foreign countries retained extraterritoriality in China. Such unequal situation did not end in the mid-1930s. Besides, China could not maintain autonomy and become Japan’s target. Japan invaded the whole China in 1937. China’s independence was not respected. Therefore, there was improvement in China’s international status but not equal diplomacy. China was diplomatically modernised to a small extent.
Although China in the mid-1930s did not actualize modernizations in different aspects, it did have a modernized feature in social aspect.
Socially, China in the mid-1930s was basically a modernized society. Social modernisation is that civil responsibility, freedom and equality are emphasised and basic human rights are protected. In fact, the Nanjing government had carried out reforms early in the 1920s to promote social modernisation. The People’s Rights Ordinance was passed to protect civil rights in 1929. Besides, to promote the ideas of equality and freedom, the government followed the early republican practices to prohibit foot-binding, slave trade and change koutou to nods and the addresses of “Da Ren” and “Lao Ye” to “Mister”. This liberalised and equalised the society. Moreover, the government started the New Life Movement in 1934 which promoted the Confucian virtues of “li, yi, lian, chi”, arousing mass consciousness, the spirit of cooperation and civil awareness. At the same time, this helped improve hygiene thus the Chinese society became healthier. Thus, the Chinese society was generally modernised in the 1930s.
Generally speaking, China in the mid-1930s was progressing to modernization. Although it gradually realized a modernized system, some traditional thoughts still existed. Therefore, to a small extent it was a modernized country.
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