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1978年在什麼程度上是中國歷史的轉捩點？試參考1949-2000年間的歷史，解釋你的答案。
立場 鄧小平復出及改革開放推行，使1978年在大程度上成為中國歷史的轉捩點。 // 架構中國在政治、農業、工商業、教育及外交方面的狀況均出現了嶄新的轉變，當然社會及軍事方面的延續情況亦不能被忽略。
主旨句 政治方面，中國由1978年前的階級鬥爭不斷轉變至1978年後的階級團結，為一轉捩點。 // 核心點前的情況 1978年前，毛澤東提出「以階級鬥爭為綱」的方針，剷除貪腐及反動勢力，例如在1951-52年推行三反五反運動，打擊貪污、盜竊國家經濟情報等分子。此外，毛澤東更於1966年發動了文化大革命，號召群眾打倒以劉少奇為首的「走資派」。結果，在1949-78年間，中國的政治鬥爭此起彼落。 // 核心點及核心點後的情況然而，至1978年鄧小平上台，其明白到階級鬥爭會導致中國處於動盪、混亂局面，不利於建設中國現代化。因此，其於1978年第十一屆三中全會中摒棄了「以階級鬥爭為綱」的方針，轉而團結全國官民，將重心投放於經濟建設，以實現政治安穩，避免再出現文革般的鬥爭以損害政治穩定，令中國在1978年政治狀況漸趨穩定。 // 對比(~20%)相比之下，1978年前毛澤東強調階級鬥爭，不斷號召人民進行革命以剷除反對勢力，令政治局勢動盪不穩，但1978年的鄧小平時期則背道而馳，反透過呼籲人民階級團結以發展經濟，使中國政治穩定下來，可見1978年是轉捩點。
農業方面，1978年是農業生產模式由集體化轉變至個體化的轉捩點。1978年前，中國在農業方面逐步實行集體生產模式，如於「一五計劃」時期(1953-57年)成立「初級農業生產合作社」及「高級農業生產合作社」。至「大躍進」時期(1958-60年)，更成立「人民公社」，進一步發展集體生產。此模式雖然於調整時期(1962-66年)短暫轉變，但「人民公社」仍然存在，採用以生產大隊為單位的集體生產模式。然而，鄧小平於1978年推行改革開放，實行「家庭聯產承包責任制」，向農民轉讓土地經營權，農民除可保有生產指標外的收成外，更可以自由決定生產的農作物種類及耕種方式。結果，實行多年的公社制度逐步崩解，最終於1984年正式被廢除。相比之下，農業生產由1978年前的集體生產轉為1978年後的個體生產，「人民公社」更於1978年後步向瓦解，使中國農業生產出現蛻變，故此該年實為一轉捩點。
工商業方面，1978年是中國經濟由封閉走向開放，由低自由度走向高自由的轉捩點。在1978年前，雖然中共政府亦重視重工業發展，但自中、蘇於1950年代末交惡後，中國工業處於自給自足、封閉的發展模式，僅與外國建立民間而非官方的貿易合作。另外，中國實行私營工商業國有化，並且實行「統購統銷制度」，控制貨品供應，市場的自由度低。但在1978年後，隨着改革開放展開，中國的工商業發展不但迅速，更逐步對外開放，例如於1980年開放沿海的深圳、珠海等為經濟特區，以吸引外資、技術等，也正因改革開放，中國的貿易額急增，至21世紀初更成為全球第一大貿易國。此外，市場自由度也不斷提高，例如改造國有企業，讓國企達致自主經營、自負盈虧，並於1985年取消「統購統銷制度」，營商環境漸趨自由化。相比之下，1978年前的中國貿易對外封閉、自給自足，至1978年後則大力發展貿易，市場自由度更逐步獲得提高，故此該年實為一轉捩點。
教育方面，中國由1978年前的輕視教育轉變至1978年後的重視教育，為一轉捩點。在1978年前，教育不受重視，因毛澤東推動現代化側重群眾力量，忽視專業知識，例如「大躍進」的特徵就是缺乏技術與知識投入，依靠群眾力量進行建設。至「文革」時期，知識更被視為反動思想的源頭，「讀書無用」、「愈讀愈蠢」等論調瀰漫全國。但自1978年鄧小平主政後，強調教育是實現中國「四個現代化」的基本條件，不但恢復全國學院，包括60所重點高等學校的運作，並新增多28所高校為重點大學，使國家於1978年已確立了88所重點大學。此外，更推行普及教育，例如於1986年推行《義務教育法》提供9年免費教育。相比之下，1978年前中國輕視教育，教育發展幾近癱瘓，但1978年後，教育重新得到重視及大力發展，基礎及高等教育重新得到發展，故1978年實為一轉捩點。
外交方面，1978年是中國由封閉走向多邊外交的轉捩點。1978年前，中國採取一邊倒外交，側重與共產主義國家建立緊密關係，但則敵視資本主義國家，例如參與韓戰(1950-53年)以對抗美國與南韓，結果令中國與西方國家關係長期交惡。更甚，自1950年代末起，毛澤東又與蘇聯領袖赫魯曉夫不和，中、蘇關係決裂。儘管中國與美、日於1970年代初重新建交，關係走向正常化，但整體而言，中國的外交於1978年前仍較為封閉。但1978年後，隨着改革開放的提出，中國積極改善對外關係，例如中、蘇關係於1989年實現正常化及中、(南)韓於1992年建交等。至20世紀末，中國基本上已修補與其他國家的外交關係，走向多邊發展。相比之下，1978年前中國外交處於較封閉的狀態，與多國關係交惡，但至1978年後，中國努力重建對外關係，發展多邊外交，該年實為一轉捩點。
從上述可見，1978年前後中國在政治、農業、工商業、教育及外交方面的狀況均出現嶄新轉變，然而，社會及軍事方面的延續部分也不應被忽視。
社會方面，1978年是中國人口問題與計劃生育的延續。早於1960年代起，中國政府已明白人口增長帶來的壓力，故此組成國務院計劃生育委員會(1964年)，至1973年再成立國務院計劃生育領導小組，以統籌計劃生育工作。至1978年後，中國的人口增長問題持續，政府就此問題繼續作出努力，如自1979年起推行「一孩政策」，並於1981年成立國家計劃生育委員會，指導生育計劃。雖然1978年後的「一孩政策」有助緩和人口增長的情況，但中國人口至2000年已接近13億，人口膨脹問題仍然嚴重。相比之下，中國的人口問題持續，成為中國在20世紀下半葉一直面對的嚴重議題，政府亦為應對人口壓力一直作出相應措施，故此1978年前後並無明顯轉變，只為一延續。
軍事方面，1978年是中國國防發展的延續。中國於1978年前亦積極強化軍力，例如於1964年成功試爆原子彈，成為世上第五個擁有核武的國家。而且，解放軍人數在改革開放前一直保持高企，一度達至661萬(1975年)，反映中共十分重視國防軍事建設。至1978年後，國防仍是中國的重點建設項目，鄧小平更強調國防軍事對中國發展的重要性，視為「四個現代化」之一。於改革開放後，雖然中共大量裁減軍隊以節省國家開支，例如於1985年裁減100萬軍人，但在裁減人數的同時更着重軍隊的素質及武備。此外，又積極自主研發高科技武器，如於1986年起研發「殲-10」戰鬥機，並於1998年成功試飛，國防軍事同樣在1978年後得到大力發展。相比之下，於1949-2000年間，雖然政府的策略上減低了軍隊的人數，但中共政府對於國防軍事的重視程度一直持續，積極研發軍事科技，包括原子彈及戰機等，故1978年前後為一延續而非轉變。
總括而言，隨着1978年改革開放的實施，中國在政治、農業、工商業、教育及外交等多方面均出現重大的變化，縱使該年於某些層面，如社會及軍事方面只是帶來延續而非轉變，仍然在大程度上為一轉捩點。
To what extent was the year 1978 a turning point in Chinese history? Explain your answer with reference to the period 1949-2000.
The comeback of Deng Xiaoping and implementation of the Reform and Opening Up made the year 1978 a turning point in Chinese history to a large extent. China had revolutionary changes in political, agricultural, industrial and commercial, educational, and diplomatic aspects, despite continuity in social and military aspects.
Politically, the relentless class struggles before 1978 were replaced by class unity after that, and the year was therefore a turning point. Before 1978, Mao Zedong proposed 'taking class struggle as the key link以階級鬥爭為綱' to eradicate corrupt officials and reactionaries. For example, the 'Three-Anti' and 'Five-Anti' Campaigns三反五反運動 were launched during 1951-52 against those involved in, for example, corruption or stealing state economic information. Besides, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution文化大革命 in 1966 and called on the masses to fight against 'capitalist roaders' with Liu Xiaoqi as the leader. As a consequence, political struggles took place in China one after another in the period 1949-78. However, Deng came into power in 1978 and he realized that class struggles would only cause instability and chaos in China, which worked against China's modernization. Therefore, he abandoned the principle of 'taking class struggle as the key link' at the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CCP第十一屆三中全會 in 1978. Instead, he tried to unite the people and changed the focus to building the economy in order to achieve political stability and prevent another Cultural Revolution, stabilizing China's politics in 1978. Relatively speaking, before 1978, Mao stressed class struggles and urged the people to start revolutions against the opposition, making the political situation unstable; however, after 1978, Deng adopted the opposite approach and stabilized China by encouraging class unity for economic development. Therefore, the year 1978 was a turning point in this regard.
In agricultural aspect, the year 1978 was the turning point when the production mode changed from collectivized to individualized. Before 1978, the Chinese government gradually put agricultural collectivization into practice. For instance, it established 'Elementary Agricultural Producers' Cooperatives初級農業生產合作社' and 'Advanced Agricultural Production Cooperatives高級農業生產合作社' during the First Five-Year Plan (1953-57), and even the People's Communes人民公社 during the Great Leap Forward (1958-60) to further promote collectivized production. Although this mode was temporarily changed during the Readjustment (1962-66), the People's Communes were still running and collectivized production system based on production teams remained. However, Deng introduced the Reform and Opening Up in 1978 with the 'Household Responsibility System家庭聯產承包責任制', under which peasants were given contracted use of land. They could not only keep all crops they produced beyond production targets but also decide what crops to grow and how they were grown. As a result, the Communes running for years collapsed and were formally abolished in 1984.Comparatively speaking, China's agricultural production changed from collectivized before 1978 to individualized after 1978, and the People's Communes were moving towards disintegration after 1978. As there was transformation in China's agricultural production, the year concerned was a turning point.
In industrial and commercial aspect, the year 1978 was the turning point when the Chinese economy changed from closed to open and its level of freedom from low to high. Before 1978, the Chinese government did value heavy industry, but industry of China was self-sustaining and exclusive with only unofficial trade ties with foreign nations. In addition, China's nationalization policy and the unified purchase and marketing system統購統銷制度 controlled the supply of goods and allowed a low degree of freedom in the market. However, after 1978, with the Reform and Opening Up policy, China's commerce and industry not only developed rapidly but also opened up to the world gradually. For example, special economic zones經濟特區were established in the coastal cities Shenzhen and Zhuhai in 1980 to attract foreign capital and technology. The reform also led to a surge in China's volume of trade and made the country the world's largest trading nation in the early 21st century. Also, the Chinese market was granted greater freedom with the reform of state-owned enterprises that made them independent and self-financing, and the abolition of the unified purchase and marketing system in 1985. The business environment had an increasing level of freedom. Relatively speaking, China before 1978 was closed to foreign trade and remained self-sustaining, but after 1978 it put enormous effort into trade development and increased the degree of freedom of its market. Therefore, the year concerned was a turning point.
In educational aspect, China changed from disregarding education to emphasizing it in the year 1978, which could therefore be considered a turning point. Before 1978, education was not valued because Mao relied upon the power of the masses for modernization with disregard for expertise. This was best exemplified by the Great Leap Forward that lacked investment in technology and depended on the masses for construction. During the Cultural Revolution, knowledge was even regarded as the source of reactionary thoughts, and views such as 'study is useless讀書無用' and 'the more you study, the more foolish you become愈讀愈蠢' prevailed nationwide. However, after restored to power in 1978, Deng emphasized that education was the prerequisite for China's 'Four Modernizations '. Therefore, he brought colleges all over the country, including the 60 key universities, back into operation and added 28 more to the list of key universities, making the total number 88 in 1978. Also, universal education was achieved with the introduction of the Compulsory Education Law義務教育法 in 1986 to provide nine-year free and mandatory education. Comparatively speaking, China before 1978 ignored education and its educational development came to a standstill, but after 1978 it valued education and greatly promoted its development at elementary and tertiary levels. Therefore, the year 1978 should be a turning point.
In diplomatic aspect, the year 1978 was the turning point when China gave up isolation for multilateral diplomacy. Before 1978, China adopted the diplomatic policy of 'leaning to one side', under which it inclined to build close relationship with communist countries while maintaining hostility towards the capitalist ones, as exemplified by its participation in the Korean War韓戰(1950-53) against America and South Korea. This policy led to a rift between China and Western countries. Worse still, in the late 1950s, Mao had a disagreement with the Soviet leader Khrushchev赫魯曉夫 and there had been the Sino-Soviet split since then. Although China re-established and normalized its diplomatic relations with America and Japan in the early 1970s, the country was more diplomatically isolated before 1978. However, after 1978, with the Reform and Opening Up taking place, China made great efforts to improve its foreign relations, which were exemplified by the normalization of Sino-Soviet relations in 1989 and establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992.By the end of the 20th century, China had recovered its diplomatic relations with most countries and been moving towards multilateral development. Relatively speaking, China was more diplomatically isolated and had bad relations with many countries before 1978, but it tried hard to re-establish foreign relations and develop multilateral diplomacy after that. Therefore, the year 1978 should be a turning point.
From the above discussion, there were dramatic differences in China before and after 1978 from political, agricultural, industrial and commercial, educational, and diplomatic points of view. However, the continuity in social and military aspects should also not be ignored.
In social aspect, the year 1978 marked the continuity in China's population problem and family planning policy. As early as the 1960s, the Chinese government sensed the pressure of population growth and set up the Family Planning Commission of the State Council國務院計劃生育委員會(1964) and the Family Planning Leading Group of the State Council國務院計劃生育領導小組(1973) to coordinate family planning work. After 1978, the population problem in China persisted and the government continued to make efforts to solve it. For example, the one-child policy一孩政策 was implemented in 1979 and the National Population and Family Planning Commission國家計劃生育委員會 established in 1981 to give directions to family planning. Although the one-child policy had alleviated the population problem since 1978, the Chinese population was approaching 1.3 billion in 2000 and the population explosion issue remained acute. Relatively speaking, the Chinese population problem persisted and became a critical issue for China during the second half of the 20th century, and the government had been adopting different policies accordingly to cope with the population pressure. Therefore, China differed not much before and after 1978 and there was only continuity in this aspect.
In military aspect, the year 1978 also marked the continuity in the development of China's national defense. Before 1978, China already put great effort into military build-up. For example, China successfully exploded its first atomic bomb原子彈in 1964 and became the world's fifth nuclear-armed state. Also, the number of the People's Liberation Army remained high and even reached 6.61 million in 1975, showing the CCP's emphasis on national defense. After 1978, national defense remained one of China's key construction projects, and Deng Xiaoping even stressed how important it was to China by putting it as one of the 'Four Modernizations'. After the Reform and Opening Up, the government cut its army's size to reduce expenditure. In 1985, the size of the PLA was reduced by a million. But at the same time it put more focus on the quality and equipment of the army. In addition, the government made considerable efforts to design and produce high-tech weapons. For example, the research and development of 'Jian-10' began in 1986 and its prototype made the first flight in 1998. The development of national defense also received great support after 1978. Comparatively speaking, in the period 1949-2000, the government strategically lowered the number of its army, but it kept making national defense one of its priorities and made great efforts to develop military technology represented by atomic bombs and fighter aircrafts. Therefore, what China experienced before and after 1978 was continuity instead of changes.
In conclusion, with the Reform and Opening Up being implemented in 1978, China underwent dramatic changes in political, agricultural, industrial and commercial, educational, and diplomatic aspects. Although the year 1978 only brought continuity instead of changes in some aspects such as the social and military ones, it was still a turning point to a large extent.
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