1. 法意諒解 Franco-Italian Entente (1900年)
A. 法意諒解的簽署背景及原因：
由於德皇威廉二世 William II 對並非歐洲五強的意大利不甚重視，加上意大利與奧匈帝國仍然存有領土的問題，意大利認為奧匈霸佔了意大利尚未收回的領土(如提洛爾 Tyrol 及伊斯特里亞 Istria )，因此令意大利與德、奧的關係日漸疏離。相反，法國與意大利的矛盾日漸減少，法國為孤立德國而對意大利作出善意的態度，使兩國於1900年12月達成協定。但該協定並非屬於盟約性質，只是兩國對於殖民地方面的諒解。
B. 法意諒解的協定內容：
Ø 法國承認意大利於的黎波里 Tripoli 有自由行動權；
Ø 意大利承認法國在摩洛哥 Morocco 有自由行動權。
C. 法意諒解的意義：
Ø 法意諒解標誌著意大利對三國同盟出現離心力，因意大利與德國的敵人法國達成殖民地諒解。往後，於兩次摩洛哥危機時，意大利也沒有支持德國。更甚，於第一次世界大戰爆發後，被英、法以領土利益所吸引，轉投協約國。
Ø 法、意後來於1902年再次簽訂秘密條約，一旦簽約國與其他國家爆發戰爭時，另一簽約國需要中立。
1. Franco-Italian Entente法意諒解 (1900)
A. Background & Reasons of signing Franco-Italian Entente:
As the German Kaiser, William II 威廉二世 was not quite concerned about Italy politically, together with territorial controversy existed between Italy and Austria-Hungary, Italy considered Austria-Hungary as invading Italy’s yet-to-be-returned land 意大利尚未收回的領土(such as Tyrol 提洛爾 & Istria 伊斯特里亞). This made relationships between Italy and Germany as well as Austria-Hungary became worse. On the other hand, Italy had fewer clashes with France as France portrayed friendly attitude towards Italy with its plan to isolate Germany. Entente was signed between France and Italy on December 1900. Yet, the Entente was not a sign of making allies – it only served as recognizing each nation’s colonies with colonial agreement
B. Content of Franco-Italian Entente:
Ø France admitted Italy’s freedom of movement at Tripoli 的黎波里;
Ø Italy admitted France’s freedom of movement at Morocco 摩洛哥.
C. Significance of Franco-Italian Entente:
Ø Recognition of France’s colonies signified Italy’s deviation from the Triple Alliance. Since then, Italy did not support Germany in the two Moroccan Crises. Worse still, attracted by territorial interest provided by Britain and France, it even joined the Allies in the WWI.
Ø In 1902, Italy and France signed another secret treaty, which stated that a contracting party must maintain its neutrality when another party had war with other nations.
2. 英日同盟 Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902年)
A. 英日同盟的簽署背景及原因：
由於甲午戰爭 Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)後，日本於中國東北的利益大大增加。同時，俄國也於八國聯軍 Eight-Power Allied Forces (1900)後佔領了中國東北，拒不撤軍，故兩國於中國東北的競爭便導致雙方矛盾日深。然而，日、俄的不和卻成為英、日結盟的契機，因民主的英國與專制的俄國向來不和，其深恐俄國於近東及遠東的擴張。因此，於英國及日本的共同利益考慮底下，於1902年1月30日結成英日同盟，旨在保護兩國在中國及朝鮮的利益。
B. 英日同盟的條約內容：
Ø 規定英國或日本受簽署國以外一個國家攻擊時，盟國需要保持中立；
Ø 規定英國或日本受兩個國家或以上攻擊時，盟國則需要提供援助。
C. 英日同盟的意義：
Ø 英日同盟標誌了英國結束「光榮孤立」Splendid Isolation政策，於外交上尋求合作，以制衡德、俄等國的殖民地擴張。
Ø 日本成為近代首個亞洲國家於平等的基礎上與西方國家結成同盟，此同盟大大提高了日本的國際地位，日本由亞洲強國正式升格為世界強國。
2. Anglo-Japanese Alliance英日同盟 (1902)
A. Background & Reasons of signing Anglo-Japanese Alliance:
After the Sino-Japanese War甲午戰爭 (1894-95), Japan had more interests in Northeastern China. However, Russia invaded Northeastern China and refused to withdraw its army after Eight-Power Allied Forces八國聯軍 (1900), leading to worsening relationship between Russia and Japan due to the crisis in Northeastern China. With the long-existed discontent between the democratic Britain and dictatorship-rule Russia, the crisis helped building allied relationship between Japan and Britain. Japan and Britain both feared Russian invasion in Near East and Far East. With consideration of both countries’ interests, Anglo-Japanese Alliance was signed on 30th January 1902 to protect both nations’ interests in Japan and North Korea.
B. Content of Anglo-Japanese Alliance:
Ø Require declaration of neutrality if either signed country was involved in war with one nation;
Ø Promise of support if either signed country was involved in war with more than one nation(s).
C. Significance of Anglo-Japanese Alliance:
Ø The Alliance signified the end of British Splendid Isolation「光榮孤立」 policy with increasing tendency to seek diplomatic support in confrontation of colonial expansion by countries like Germany and Russia.
Ø Japan became the first Asian country to have alliance with a Western country in modern history on an equal basis which increased Japan’s international status to become a strong nation in the World.
3. 英法摯誠協定(或稱「英法協約」) Entente Cordiale ( 1904年)
A. 英法摯誠協定的簽署背景及原因：
英法於共同的利害考慮底下達成摯誠協定，因德國的崛起使英、法均抱戒心。同時，英國於1902年已於日本結盟；法國則於1894年已於俄國結盟，但日本與俄國於中國東北的爭執持續激烈，英國及法國均擔心倘若日、俄兩國爆發戰爭會使雙方捲入戰火。加上，法國於1898年法紹達危機Fashoda Crisis中對英國讓步，使英國對法國有所改觀。因此，於此基礎上，兩國於1904年4月達成殖民地諒解。
B. 英法摯誠協定的主要內容：
Ø 法國承認英國於埃及 Egypt的利益；
Ø 英國承認法國於摩洛哥 Morocco的利益。
C. 英法摯誠協定的意義：
Ø 雖然此協定並非屬於同盟性質，只是屬於殖民地諒解 colonial entente性質。但條約鞏固了英國與法國的關係，也被視為是法國與英國的盟約。
Ø 日後，德國為測試摯誠協定的堅韌度而挑起摩洛哥危機 Moroccan Crisis (1905年)，使危機出現。
3. Entente Cordiale英法摰誠協定/英法協約 (1904)
A. Background & Reasons of signing Entente Cordiale:
With consideration of both benefits and drawbacks, Britain and France signed the Entente Cordiale given the rise of Germany has raised attention from Britain and France. At the same time, with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) and the allied relationship between France and Russia (1894), Britain and France feared that they would be involved in war if there was outbreak of war between Japan and Russia as there was consistent crises in Northeastern China between the two countries. In addition, as France conceded in Fashoda Crisis法紹達危機 (1898) to Britain, this led to Britain’s change in attitude towards France. On such basis, colonial agreement was signed between France and Britain through Entente Cordiale in April 1904.
B. Content of Entente Cordiale
Ø France admitted Britain’s interest in Egypt埃及;
Ø Britain admitted France’s interest in Morocco摩洛哥.
C. Significance of Entente Cordiale
Ø This entente only served as making colonial agreement殖民地諒解 instead of building of allies. However, this entente consolidated relationship between France and Britain.
Ø After this entente’s signature, Germany initiated Moroccan Crisis摩洛哥危機 (1905) to test how emphasized the Entente Cordiale.
4. 日俄戰爭 Russian-Japanese War (1904-05年)
A. 日俄戰爭的爆發背景及原因：
由於日本及俄國均有意於中國東北地區進行擴張，加上甲午戰爭後，日本原本可以獲得《馬關條約》 Treaty of Shimonoseki 中的東北三省，但基於俄國聯合法國及德國迫日還遼，使日本失去戰勝所得的大部分利益。另一方面，俄國於八國聯軍(1900)後以保護東北地區的僑民為由，拒不撤軍，使日本與俄國的矛盾日益加深。最終，日本於1904年2月戰艦偷襲俄國於旅順 Lu Shun 及大連Dalian的軍隊，觸發日俄戰爭。
B. 日俄戰爭的發展：
Ø 戰事持續達1年半，俄國最終敗陣，於1905年9月簽訂《樸茨矛斯條約》 Treaty of Portsmouth。
Ø 條約規定俄國承認日本於朝鮮的利益；俄國需要將大部分於中國東北的利益轉讓於日本。
C. 日俄戰爭的意義：
Ø 戰敗使俄國將視線由遠東再次轉向近東，致使近東衝突於日俄戰爭後惡化。
Ø 俄國的戰敗使英國對俄國於遠東的戒心大減，為1907年英俄諒解Anglo-Russian Entente鋪路。
4. Russian-Japanese War (1904-05)
A. Background & Reasons of outbreak of Russian-Japanese War:
Intention of expanding territory existed in both Japan and Russia. As Japan should be awarded Manchuria as stated in Treaty of Shimonoseki, yet Japan was forced to return Liaodong Peninsula by Russia, France and Germany, leading to Japan being deprived of most interest gained as victorious power. On the other hand, as Russia refused to withdraw its army after Eight-Power Allied Forces (1900) under the claim of protecting its citizens in Northeastern China, this induced rivalry between Russia and Japan. Thus, Japan attacked Russian Far East Fleet at Lu Shun and Dalian that caused the outbreak of Russian-Japanese War in February 1904.
B. Development of Russian-Japanese War:
Ø Russia was defeated after the 1.5-year war and signed the Treaty of Portsmouth in September 1905.
Ø Treaty required Russia’s admittance of Japanese interest in North Korea and Russia’s return of most Manchuria’s interest back to Japan.
C. Significance of Russian-Japanese War
Ø The defeat in war induced Russia to focus on Near East rather than Far East, aggravating Near East crises after Russian-Japanese War.
Ø The defeat in war greatly reduced the British vigilance over Russia in Far East, paving for Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907.
5. 第一次摩洛哥危機 Frist Moroccan Crisis (1905年)
A. 第一次摩洛哥危機的發生背景及原因：
摯誠協定Entente Cordiale (1904年)的簽訂使德國政府甚為憤怒，擔心英、法兩國聯合以箝制德國。但協定只屬於殖民地諒解的性質，並非盟約。因此，德國希望測試摯誠協定的堅韌度。於1905年3月，德皇親訪摩洛哥的丹吉爾 Tangier，並倡言摩洛哥應對各國機會均等及開放門戶。德皇的舉動使法國大為最不滿，局勢變得緊張起來。及後，德國提出召開國際會議(1906年阿爾及西勒會議 Algeciras Conference )討論摩洛哥問題。但會議並不如德國所期望，因會議中只有奧匈支持德國，而意大利則未有支持，最終法國成為是次危機中的贏家。
B. 阿爾及西勒會議Algeciras Conference (1906)的內容：
Ø 法國維持摩洛哥及阿爾及利亞Algeria 邊境的警察任務；
Ø 法國和西班牙兩國負責維持摩洛哥的秩序；
Ø 法國協助摩洛哥組成政府銀行。
C. 第一次摩洛哥危機的意義：
Ø 雖然法國取得外交上的勝利，但摩洛哥問題未有得到合理的解決，使德國懷恨在心，日後挑起第二次摩洛哥危機(1911年)。
Ø 事件反映了意大利的背離及奧匈的忠誠，使德國於日後更加支持奧匈的擴張，如1908年波斯尼亞危機Bosnian Crisis及1914年塞拉耶佛危機Sarajevo Incident。
5. First Moroccan Crisis第一次摩洛哥危機 (1905)
A. Background and Reasons of First Moroccan Crisis:
Entente Cordiale (1904) has enraged Germany, fearing that Britain and France will collaborate to fight against Germany. Yet, Entente Cordiale (1904) only served as a colonial agreement instead of allying. Germany wished to test how emphasized and strong Entente Cordiale was. Thus, King of Germany visited Tangier in Morocco in March 1905, persuading Morocco to offer equal opportunities to every nation and open up their country. France was greatly dissatisfied with what King of Germany did. Germany then called for international conferences (Algeciras Conference 1906) for the discussion of Moroccan issues. However, only Austria-Hungary supported Germany in the conferences, while Italy did not support, leading to France becoming the winner of the crisis.
B. Content of Algeciras Conference (1906):
Ø France should maintain its control on police and customs of Morocco and Algeria;
Ø France and Spain should be responsible for regulating Morocco’s discipline;
Ø France should assist Morocco in setting up State Bank of Morocco.
C. Significance of First Moroccan Crisis
Ø Moroccan issues were not well settled despite the fact that France gained great advantage diplomatically, leading to Germany’s wish to take revenge, thus triggering Second Moroccan Crisis (1911);
Ø First Moroccan Crisis reflected Italy’s deviation and Austria-Hungary’s loyalty, leading to future Germany encouragement on Austria-Hungary’s expansion, e.g. Bosnian Crisis (1908) and Sarajevo Incident (1914).
6. 第二次海牙裁軍會議 Second Hague Conference (1907年)
A. 第二次海牙裁軍會議的召開背景及原因：
列強曾於1899年召開第一次海牙裁軍會議，會議共有26個國家參與，但成效有限，只對戰爭法 law of war 有所規定(如禁止使用毒氣Poison Gas和善待戰俘prisoner of war等)及成立海牙法院Hague Court，但對裁減軍備則未能達成任何協議。於此基礎上，美國提倡於1904年10月召開第二次海牙裁軍會議，但最終因日俄戰爭而延遲至1907年6月舉行。此次會議共有44個國家參與。
B. 第二次海牙裁軍會議所達成的主要協定內容(成效)：
Ø 參與國承諾戰爭時會以人道及公正方式進行；
Ø 戰爭法有若干的進步，如規定開戰前必須經過正式的宣戰和中立國家的權利及義務。
C. 第二次海牙裁軍會議的不足(局限)：
Ø 只於戰爭法的規定上所有改進，但對於裁減軍備仍然未見成效。
Ø 會議缺乏實際效力，如各國於一次大戰期間違反協議，實行空對地的轟炸。
D. 第二次海牙裁軍會議的意義：
Ø 於會議上，英國大力支持裁減海軍，使德國猜忌其用意，故反對裁軍。會後，德國更加大力擴張海軍，掀起更激烈的海軍競賽。
Ø 列強原本計劃於1915年舉行第三次裁軍會議，但最終因第一次世界大戰爆發而不了了之。
6. Second Hague Conference第二次海牙裁軍會議 (1907)
A. Background and Causes for calling Second Hague Conference
Powers had organized First Hague Conference in 1899 with 26 participating countries. Yet, First Hague Conference had limited effectiveness with only restrictions on law of war戰爭法 (prohibiting use of poisonous gas毒氣 and proper treatment against prisoner of war戰俘) and establishment of Hague Court海牙法院, with no consensus made on disarmament. Thus, USA proposed Second Hague Conference in October 1904, yet postponed to June 1907 due to Russian-Japanese War with 44 participating countries.
B. Content (Effectiveness) of Second Hague Conference:
Ø Participating countries promised that wars should be conducted with humane and fairness;
Ø Certain advancement in law of war: official declaration of war should be conducted before outbreak of war and establishment of rights and responsibilities of neutral countries.
C. Drawback (Limitations) of Second Hague Conference:
Ø Not effective in urging disarmament but only in limited advancement in law of war.
Ø Not law-binding: nations did not obey the agreements made but even conduct air-to-ground bombing.
D. Significance of Second Hague Conference:
Ø Britain supported large scale disarmament, yet this triggered Germany to worry about its purpose so that Germany opposed to disarmament. Germany expanded its navy fleet greatly after the Conference leading to stronger armaments race.
Ø The originally proposed Third Hague Conference in 1915 was blown off due to the outbreak of First World War.
7. 英俄協約(或稱「英俄諒解」) Anglo-Russian Entente (1907年)
A. 英俄協約的簽署背景及原因：
由於俄國於日俄戰爭(1904-05年)的戰敗使英國對俄國於遠東的戒心大減，加上當時法國已分別與俄國結成盟友及與英國達成殖民的諒解，故法國拉攏一向不和的英國與俄國，使兩國於1907年8月簽訂英俄協約。
B. 英俄協約的內容：
Ø 英國承認俄國於波斯北部 Northern Persia 的利益；
Ø 俄國承認英國於阿富汗Afghanistan及波斯南部Southern Persia的利益。
C. 英俄協約的意義：
Ø 英俄協約是簽署三國協約的踏板，法俄同盟 Franco-Russian Alliance (1894年)、英法協約 Entente Cordiale (1904年)及英俄協約 Anglo-Russian Entente (1907年)使三國互相成為同盟，形成三國協約 Triple Entente。
7. Anglo-Russian Entente英俄協約/英俄諒解 (1907)
A. Background and Reasons of signing Anglo-Russian Entente:
Russia’s failure in Russian-Japanese War (1904-05) has reduced British vigilance in Far East. At the same time, France had allied with Russia, as well as Britain had signed colonial agreement with France. Thus, France encouraged Britain and Russia to sign Anglo-Britain Entente in August 1907.
B. Content of Anglo-Russian Entente:
Ø Britain admits Russia’s welfare in Northern Persia波斯北部;
Ø Russia admits Britain’s welfare in Afghanistan阿富汗 and Southern Persia波斯南部.
C. Significance of Anglo-Russian Entente:
Ø Anglo-Russian Entente is the stepping stone to Triple Entente. Franco-Russian Alliance法俄同盟 (1894), Entente Cordiale英法協約 (1904) and Anglo-Russian Entente英俄協約 (1907) enabled the three nations to become allies and form Triple Entente三國協約.
8. 三國協約Triple Entente (1907年)
A. 三國協約的建立背景及原因：
三國協約的建立是由三條盟約所組成，分別是1894年法俄同盟 Franco-Russian Alliance ；1904年英法協約Entente Cordiale 及1907年英俄協約 Anglo-Russian Entente，每個國家均分別與另外兩國結成同盟或達成諒解關係。因此，三國協約正式成立。由於三國協約並非法、英、俄三國共同簽署互相援助的條約所建立，只是條約與條約間形成的陣營，而英國與法、俄的協約只屬於殖民地諒解 colonial agreement的性質，故英國對於法國及俄國並無軍事援助的責任。但英國作為法、俄的盟友，於對抗德國及奧匈勢力上，也有一定的義務。
B. 三國協約的意義：
Ø 三國協約的建立正式將歐洲劃分為三國同盟 Triple Alliance 及三國協約的陣營，雙方互相抗衡。
Ø 三國協約的簽訂使法、俄、英等國更有信心與德國、奧匈進行競爭，故間接有助驅使衝突的出現。
Ø 三國協約成立後，德國認為有必要加強陣營內的凝聚力，但意大利明顯對三國同盟已有離心力，故令德國與奧匈的關係更加靠攏。
8. Triple Entente三國協約 (1907)
A. Background and Reasons of formation of Triple Entente:
Triple Entente was formed by the three ententes, namely Franco-Russian Alliance法俄同盟 (1894), Entente Cordiale英法協約 (1904) and Anglo-Russian Entente英俄協約 (1907). Each nation became ally or reached colonial agreement with another 2 nations. Thus, Triple Entente was able to be formed. However, Triple Entente was not an inter-signed nor a mutual-assisting entente formed amongst the three nations, thus Triple Entente simply symbolized the camp with the three ententes. It is noted that Britain with France and Russia were only in a relationship with colonial agreement殖民地諒解, not allies. Britain did not have the responsibility to provide military assistance to Russia or France in case of war. Britain only shared limited obligation to help defeat Austria-Hungary and Germany as non-official allies.
B. Significance of Triple Entente:
Ø Formation of Triple Entente officially shaped Europe into two camps, namely Triple Alliance三國同盟 and Triple Entente with conflicting confrontation.
Ø Signature of Triple Entente gave confidence to France, Britain and Russia to compete with Germany and Austria-Hungary strategically, which indirectly led to the conflicts between the two camps.
Ø After the formation of Triple Entente, Germany thought that it was necessary to enhance cohesion amongst Triple Alliance, yet deviation of Italy enhanced the relationship between Germany and Austria-Hungary.
9. 波斯尼亞危機 Bosnian Crisis (1908年)
A. 波斯尼亞危機的發生背景及原因：
俄國於日俄戰爭Russo-Japanese War (1904-05年)的戰敗，使其於遠東Far East 的擴張受到重大挫敗，故將視線再次轉投向巴爾幹半島 Balkan Peninsula 。加上，當時俄國與英國關係有所改善，故相信英國會同意俄國軍艦可以通過博斯普魯斯海峽 Bosphorus Strait及達達尼爾海峽 Dardanelles Strait (原本俄國被1856年的《巴黎條約》 Treaty of Paris所限制，不能通過兩海峽)。同時，奧匈也希望吞併波斯尼亞 Bosnia 及黑塞哥維那 Herzegovina 兩地。因此，俄國與奧匈進行談判，奧匈支持俄國軍艦通過博、達兩海峽；俄國則支持奧匈吞併波、黑兩地。
B. 波斯尼亞危機的發展：
然而，該談判未得到國際認可時，奧匈便單方面於1908年吞併波、黑兩地，但俄國要求通過兩海峽的要求卻被英國所拒絕，故導致俄國深感受騙。及後，俄國主張以會議方式討論紛爭又被奧匈拒絕。俄國及塞爾維亞擔心奧匈吞併波、黑後勢力劇增而大為不滿。同時，德國也於危機中支持奧匈的吞併行動，故使衝突尖銳化。
最終，由於英、法兩國擔心俄國於近東的勢力擴大而未有支持俄國，導致俄國未敢有進一步的反抗行動，事件最終得到平息。
C. 波斯尼亞危機的意義：
Ø 奧匈吞併波、黑的舉動使塞爾維亞及斯拉夫人憤然不滿，導致日後塞爾維亞青年刺殺皇儲斐迪南 Ferdinand，引致塞拉耶佛危機(1914年)。
Ø 俄國於波斯尼亞危機受被迫讓步，使其民族尊嚴受損，故於1914年塞拉耶佛危機時，俄國以總動員的方式大力支持塞爾維亞，希望挽回民族光榮。
Ø 意大利眼見奧匈的野心，故認為要從奧匈手上取回提洛爾及伊斯特里亞等地困難重重，故於俄國關係走近，於1909年達成協議(《拉匡尼基協定》 Racconigi Agreement )，意大利支持俄國維持巴爾幹的狀況以抗衡奧匈的再次擴張；俄國則承認意大利於的黎波里 Tripoli 的利益。
9. Bosnian Crisis波斯尼亞危機 (1908)
A. Background and Reasons of Bosnian Crisis
The defeat in Russian-Japanese War日俄戰爭 (1904-05) discouraged Russia to make expansion in Far East, thus Russia decided to focus back on Balkan Peninsula巴爾幹半島. Moreover, betterment in relationship with Britain gave hope to Russia that it might be possible to have its navy to pass through Bosphorus Strait博斯普魯斯海峽 and Dardanelles Strait達達尼爾海峽 with the agreement with Britain (originally prohibited by Treaty of Paris《巴黎條約》 1856).Austria-Hungary had aggression in expanding to Bosnia波斯尼亞 and Herzegovina黑塞哥維那. Thus, Russia and Austria-Hungary went into conference, resulting in Austria-Hungary supporting Russian navy to pass through the two straits while Russia supporting Austria-Hungary to expand into the two nations
B. Development of Bosnian Crisis
However, when the conference was not internationally recognized, Austria-Hungary expanded its territory to Bosnia and Herzegovina unilaterally in 1908. At the same time, Russian request of passing through the two straits was rejected by Britain, enabling Russia to feel that the nation was cheated. Russia then decided to discuss the conflict through having conferences with Austria-Hungary, but being rejected as well. Russia and Serbia were greatly provoked and worried about that Austria-Hungary’s power would drastically increase after the expansion to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Meanwhile, Germany supported Austria-Hungary’s action throughoutthe crisis that elevated the extent of the crisis.
At the end, as France and Britain feared Russia’s Near East expansion and did not support Russia, Russia decided to stop further actions and led to an end of the crisis.
C. Significance of Bosnia Crisis
Ø The expansion of Austria-Hungary to Bosnia and Herzegovina led to the dissatisfaction of Serbians and Slavic people, leading to the Serbian youth assassinating Ferdinand斐迪南 and caused the Sarajevo Crisis塞拉耶佛危機 (1914).
Ø Russia was forced to concede in Bosnia Crisis, with its national pride being harmed, thus leading to Russia supporting Serbia with general mobilization during the Sarajevo Incident to safeguard its national pride.
Ø Italy witnessed Austria-Hungary’s ambition and understood that it was difficult to take back Tyrol and Istria. With better relationship between Italy and Russia, Racconigi Agreement《拉匡尼基協定》 was signed in 1909 signifying that Italy supported Russia in the Balkan Peninsula situation in face of Austria-Hungary’s expansion, while Russia admitted Italy’s interest in Tripoli.
10. 第二次摩洛哥危機 Second Moroccan Crisis (1911年)
A. 第二次摩洛哥危機的發生背景及原因：
由於阿爾及西勒會議 Algeciras Conference (1906年)並未能有效調停德國及法國於摩洛哥的利益紛爭，於1911年摩洛哥暴動發生時，法國出兵摩洛哥首都非斯 Fes ，德國旋即表示不滿。德國擔心法國出兵摩洛哥會使摩洛哥成為法國的保護領。因此，德國派出炮艦黑豹號 Panther 到阿加迪爾港口 Agadir抗議。
B. 第二次摩洛哥危機的發展：
Ø 事件中，英國支持法國；俄國則表面上支持法國，但同時以自己軍備未足為由勸法國讓步(實際上因俄國於1910年與德國達成近東的鐵路修築權協議，故俄國希望暫時避免與德國發生衝突)。最終，危機以德、法達成協議而成功平息。協議中，法國願意以部分剛果 Congo 利益以換取德國承認法國於摩洛哥的利益。
C. 第二次摩洛哥危機的意義：
Ø 摩洛哥危機後，列強間的殖民地衝突大致獲得解決。於第一次世界大戰爆發前，歐洲五強並未有為殖民地問題而再次發生危機。
Ø 由於德國在兩次摩洛哥危機中受辱，故在往後的衝突中採取更強硬的態度。
10. Second Moroccan Crisis第二次摩洛哥危機 (1911)
A. Background and Reasons of Second Moroccan Crisis:
As Algeciras Conference阿爾及西勒會議 (1906) failed to settle the interest conflict in Morocco between Germany and France, France sent its army to Moroccan Capital Fes during the riot in Morocco in 1911. Germany was greatly enraged with France’s action as Germany feared that Morocco would become French protectorate with its army in Morocco in 1911. Germany thus sent its gunboat Panther黑豹號 to Port Agadir阿加迪爾港口 for protest.
B. Development of Second Moroccan Crisis:
Ø Britain supported France; Russia seemed to be supporting France, yet asking if France could concede as Russia was not militarily prepared (As Russia made a consensus with Germany about the rights of constructing Near East Railway in 1910, Russia did not wish to have conflict with Germany in the short run). Crisis was eventually settled with the agreement made by France and Germany. France agreed to use part of Congo’s剛果 interest in return of having Germany admitting France’s interest in Morocco.
C. Significance of Second Moroccan Crisis:
Ø Colonial conflicts were almost well settled after the Second Moroccan Crisis. There was no more colonial conflict before the outbreak of WWI.
Ø As Germany was taking the soft approach in two Moroccan Crises, Germany decided to take harder approach in future crisis
11. 意土戰爭 Italo-Turkish War (1911-12年)
A. 意土戰爭的發生背景及原因：
由於1911年7月發生第二次摩洛哥危機，德、奧、法、英、俄等正捲入紛爭。意大利乘機以的黎波里 Tripoli 及昔蘭尼加 Cyrenaica 之利益受到土耳其侵略為理由，向土耳其發出最後通牒，要求土耳其同意其進軍到的黎波里。土耳其拒絕後，意大利於次日便向土耳其發動戰爭。最終，意大利戰勝，雙方於1912年10月簽訂《洛桑條約》Treaty of Lausanne，條約規定意大利可獲得北非的黎波里 Tripoli 及昔蘭尼加 Cyrenaica的利益。
B. 意土戰爭的意義：
Ø 意大利終於成功取得的黎波里 Tripoli 及昔蘭尼加 Cyrenaica的利益。
Ø 土耳其陷入戰爭使巴爾幹小國乘勢而起，發動第一次巴爾幹戰爭，以武力方式要求獨立及獲得更多領土。
11. Italo-Turkish War (1911-12)
A. Background and Reasons of Italo-Turkish War:
With the Second Moroccan Crisis in July 1911, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Britain and Russia were in great conflicts. Italy then claimed its interest in Tripoli的黎波里 and Cyrenaica昔蘭尼加 was harmed by Turkey and issued ultimatum to Turkey, forcing Turkey to allow its troops to enter Tripoli. Turkey rejected and Italo-Turkish War broke in the following day. Italy won the war and signed the Treaty of Lausanne《洛桑條約》 in October 1912, confirming Italy had the right to own interest in Tripoli的黎波里 and Cyrenaica昔蘭尼加.
B. Significance of Italo-Turkish War
Ø Italy finally succeeded in gaining interest in Tripoli的黎波里 and Cyrenaica昔蘭尼加.
Ø Balkan’s nations rose when Turkey was involved in war, leading to the First Balkan War, fighting for independence and more land with military force.
12. 英法海軍協定 Anglo-French Naval Agreement (1912年)
A. 英法海軍協定的背景：
摩洛哥危機後，英、法對德國的戒心持續增加。於是，兩國於1912年11月達成英法海軍協定，規定兩國海軍對於附近海域的分工。
B. 英法海軍協定的內容：
Ø 英國負責保護英倫海峽 English Channel 及法國海岸的安全；
Ø 法國負責維持地中海 Mediterranean sea 的海上交通安全。
C. 英法海軍協定的意義：
Ø 英法兩國海軍的分工明顯針對德國，因此惹起了德國的戒心。
Ø 雖然英法摯誠協定(1904年)並無規定軍事上的義任，但英法海軍協定則達成了英、法對於海軍合作上的默契。1914年德國實行施里芬計劃 Schlieffen Plan破壞了比利時的中立，對英倫海峽的安全造成威脅，導致英國對德國宣戰。
12. Anglo-French Naval Agreement英法海軍協定 (1912)
A. Background of Anglo-French Naval Agreement:
Britain and France increased their vigilance towards Germany after the Moroccan Crises. Anglo-French Naval Agreement was signed in November 1912 to formulate division of labour in nearby channel.
B. Content of Anglo-French Naval Agreement:
Ø Britain was responsible for protecting English Channel英倫海峽 and French ports’ safety;
Ø France was responsible for maintaining Mediterranean Sea’s地中海 transport safety.
C. Significance of Anglo-French Naval Agreement:
Ø Division of labour was solely for their protection against Germany, raising vigilance of Germany as well.
Ø Entente Cordiale (1904) did not formulate military obligation, yet Anglo-French Naval Agreement affirmed both nation’s navy cooperation strategy. Schlieffen Plan施里芬計劃(1914) of Germany affected neutrality of Belgium, causing threat in English Channel’s safety that caused Britain to initiate war with Germany.
13. 第一次巴爾幹戰爭 First Balkan War (1912-13年)
A. 第一次巴爾幹戰爭爆發的背景及原因：
由於土意戰爭的爆發，巴爾幹小國希望藉此時機擴大其領土或獲得獨立。同時，俄國希望從中取利，軍艦獲得出博斯普魯斯海峽 Bosphorus Strait 及達達尼爾海峽 Dardanelles Strait的機會。因此，於俄國的拉攏之下，保加利亞 Bulgaria 和塞爾維亞 Serbia率先於1912年3月締結巴爾幹聯盟 The Balkan League，其後黑山 Montenegro和希臘 Greece 也加入。於10月，巴爾幹聯盟的國家分別向土耳其宣戰，最終土耳其戰敗。於列強的調停底下，舉行了倫敦會議以調停第一次巴爾幹戰爭，並於1913年5月簽訂《倫敦條約》Treaty of London。
B. 《倫敦條約》 Treaty of London 的主要內容：
Ø 博斯普魯斯及達達尼爾海峽仍然屬於土耳其；
Ø 阿爾巴尼亞 Albania 獲得獨立；
Ø 土耳其放棄除君士坦丁堡 Constantinople 外所有在巴爾幹半島的領土；
Ø 馬其頓 Macedonia 中、南部由塞、保商議條約簽訂，巴爾幹聯盟瓦解。
C. 第一次巴爾幹戰爭的意義：
Ø 由於奧匈於倫敦會議中反對塞爾維亞獲得阿爾巴尼亞，破壞了塞爾維亞實現大塞爾維亞的夢想。往後，塞爾維亞更加仇視奧匈，加深了兩國間的矛盾。
Ø 鄂圖曼帝國基本上已經瓦解，土耳其於歐洲只剩下君士坦丁堡的領土。
Ø 會議未能有效解決保加利亞與塞爾維亞有關馬其頓的領土爭端，故導致第二次巴爾幹戰爭的爆發。
Ø 由於俄國於倫敦會議上擔心保加利亞會取得博斯普魯斯及達達尼爾兩海峽；奧匈也擔心塞爾維亞取得阿爾巴尼亞會使塞爾維亞的實力大增，故俄、奧兩國鮮有地進行合作，限制保加利亞及塞爾維亞的得益。
13. First Balkan War第一次巴爾幹戰爭 (1912-13)
A. Background and Reasons of First Balkan War:
The outbreak of Italo-Turkish War led to Balkan nations trying to expand its territory or fighting for independence. At the same time, Russia wished to gain the right to pass through Bosphorus Strait博斯普魯斯海峽 and Dardanelles Strait達達尼爾海峽 throughout the War. Thus, Bulgaria保加利亞 and Serbia塞爾維亞 formed The Balkan League巴爾幹聯盟 in March 1912 under the support of Russia, with the addition of Montenegro黑山 and Greece希臘 in following days. The Balkan League’s nations then started war with Turkey in October 1912. Turkey was defeated at last. The London Conference was held under the assistance of the great powers to stop the First Balkan War, and signed the Treaty of London《倫敦條約》 in May 1913.
B. Content of Treaty of London:
Ø Bosphorus Strait and Dardanelles Strait belonged to Turkey;
Ø Albania阿爾巴尼亞 was granted independence;
Ø Turkey gave up all territory in Balkan Peninsula except Constantinople君士坦丁堡;
Ø Serbia and Bulgaria signed their own agreement for the middle and south territory of Macedonia馬其頓, with the breaking up of The Balkan League.
C. Significance of First Balkan War:
Ø With the opposition of Austria-Hungary of enabling Serbia in gaining Albania, Serbia failed to gain more land and extend its territory. Serbia was enraged at Austria-Hungary and worsened the relationship between the two nations.
Ø Ottoman Empire was completely broken up, leading to Turkey only having Constantinople as its only land in Europe.
Ø The Conference could not well settle Bulgaria and Serbia’s conflict in Macedonia, leading to the Second Balkan War.
Ø As Russia worried Bulgaria would take interest of Bosphorus Strait and Dardanelles Strait in the London Conference, Austria-Hungary was worried about Serbia would increase its strength by taking Albania, both nations have limited cooperation in controlling Serbia and Bulgaria.
14. 第二次巴爾幹戰爭 Second Balkan War (1913年)
A. 第二次巴爾幹戰爭爆發的背景及原因：
由於倫敦會議並未能有效解決保加利亞與塞爾維亞對於馬其頓 Macedonia 的領土紛爭，保加利亞 Bulgaria 認為其於第一次巴爾幹戰爭中大大牽制了土耳其，而塞爾維亞 Serbia 就於此時乘機攻佔了馬其頓，並且於戰後不願交出。因此，為奪得馬其頓的土地，1913年6月，保加利亞向塞爾維亞、希臘 Greece及黑山 Montenegro 發動進攻，而土耳其及羅馬尼亞 Romania 即宣佈加入戰爭，對保加利亞開戰。因此，保加利亞與五國作戰，最終戰敗，於1913年8月簽訂《布加勒斯特條約》 Treaty of Bucharest。
B. 《布加勒斯特條約》Treaty of Bucharest 的內容：
Ø 馬其頓被分割給塞爾維亞和希臘；
Ø 羅馬尼亞獲得北多布羅加Northern Dobruja；
Ø 土耳其取回部分阿德里安堡 Adrianople 土地。
C. 第二次巴爾幹戰爭的意義：
Ø 塞爾維亞獲得馬其頓的領土而勢力大增，加上兩次戰爭的勝利，使其日後於衝突時更加有信心開戰。
Ø 巴爾幹戰爭為巴爾幹國家劃分了陣營，戰敗的保加利亞往後靠近德國及奧匈。反之，塞爾維亞、羅馬尼亞等國則靠近協約國。
14. Second Balkan War第二次巴爾幹戰爭 (1913)
A. Background and Reasons of Second Balkan War:
The territorial conflict of Macedonia馬其頓 between Bulgaria and Serbia was not well settled in the London Conference. Bulgaria保加利亞 thought that Turkey was greatly impeded in the First Balkan War, while Serbia塞爾維亞 aggressively took Macedonia and did not willingly give it back. Bulgaria initiated invasion to Greece希臘, Serbia and Montenegro黑山 for the land in Macedonia in June 1913. Turkey and Romania then joined the War in fighting against Bulgaria. Bulgaria lost in the War and signed Treaty of Bucharest《布加勒斯特條約》 in August 1913.
B. Content of Treaty of Bucharest《布加勒斯特條約》
Ø Macedonia was divided and given to Serbia and Greece;
Ø Romania was given South Dobruja北多布羅加;
Ø Turkey took part part of its land in Adrianople阿德里安堡.
C. Significance of Second Balkan War
Ø Serbia increased its strength with the extension of territory to Macedonia, together with the successes in the two wars that enabled Serbia to be more prepared for future war.
Ø Balkan Wars divided Balkan nations into camps: Bulgaria was closer with Germany and Austria-Hungary; Serbia and Romania were closer to Triple Entente.
15. 塞拉耶佛危機 Sarajevo Incident (1914年)
A. 塞拉耶佛危機的發生背景及原因：
1914年6月28日，奧匈皇儲 Crown Prince 斐迪南大公 Archduke Franz Ferdinand 到波斯尼亞 Bosnia檢閱軍事演習，而軍事演習明顯有針對性，因波斯尼亞是塞爾維亞一直渴望獲得的領土，奧匈的軍事演習明顯以塞爾維亞為假想敵。當斐迪南大公到波斯尼亞首府塞拉耶佛 Sarajevo 時，一名塞爾維亞青年普林西普 Princip 向斐迪南大公及其妻子開槍，成功刺殺了斐迪南夫婦。此刺殺事件隨即引起奧匈及德國的高度不滿，塞拉耶佛危機因此而生。
B. 塞拉耶佛危機演變成戰爭的過程：
1914年7月23日，奧匈向塞爾維亞發出最後通碟 ultimatum ，要求塞爾維亞執行十項行動，而部分條款如下：
Ø 第二條：取締民族自衛組織及反奧匈宣傳的組織；
Ø 第四條：革除奧匈所提供的塞爾維亞官員，因該些官員進行反奧匈的宣傳；
Ø 第五條：接受與奧匈政府有關部門合作，在塞爾維亞鎮壓企圖顛覆奧匈帝國
領土完整的活動
Ø 第六條：在奧國政府指定的有關部門之協助與指示下，採取法律行動，懲罰
策劃或執行6月28日之刺殺事件
雖然塞爾維亞接受大部分的條款，但卻認為第五及第六條款侵犯國家主權，故拒絕。雖然塞爾維亞的答覆在歐洲各國引起了很好的反應。然而，奧匈仍然不滿意，於7月28日向塞爾維亞開戰。
奧塞戰爭爆發前，奧匈及塞爾維亞已分別向德國及俄國要求援助，德國於7月5日開出「空白支票」 blank cheque ，表示無限量支持奧匈；俄國也強烈支持塞爾維亞。此外，法國總統普恩加萊Raymond Poincaré和總理維維亞尼 Viviani 更於7月20-23日訪問俄國，反映出法國會對俄國作出支持。
由於奧塞戰爭的爆發，俄國於7月30日下令總動員 General Mobilization 令支持塞爾維亞，而其後，德國隨即向俄國發出最後通牒，並同時要求法國中立。而法國拒絕中立，德國即實行施里芬計劃 Schlieffen Plan ，經比利時對法開戰。原本未有表明立場的英國也因比利時Belgium中立被破壞，對德國宣戰，最終使地區性衝突升級為世界大戰。
C. 塞拉耶佛危機的意義：
Ø 成為第一次世界大戰的導火線。
Ø 民族主義衝突誘發同盟的連鎖效應，令衝突由地區性演變成世界性。
15. Sarajevo Crisis塞拉耶佛危機 (1914)
A. Background and Reasons of Sarajevo Crisis:
Austria-Hungary Crown Prince皇儲 Archduke Franz Ferdinand斐迪南大公 went to Bosnia波斯尼亞 to inspect the military exercise on 28th June 1914. However, the military exercise had an aim behind – Austria-Hungary assumed Serbia as the enemy as Serbia wanted Bosnia as their territory for long. When Ferdinand arrived Bosnia’s capital Sarajevo塞拉耶佛, a Serbia youth Princip普林西普 fired at Ferdinand and his wife and assassinated them. Austria-Hungary and Germany were greatly provoked by the incident leading to Sarajevo Crisis.
B. Sarajevo Incident: From Crisis to War:
Austria-Hungary issued ultimatum最後通碟 to Serbia on 23rd July 1914, requiring Serbia to adopt 10 actions with part of the following conditions as follows:
Ø Article 2: Dissolve nationalist organizations and all anti-Austria-Hungary organizations;
Ø Article 4: Remove all Serbian officials that are provided by Austria-Hungary as they promote Anti-Austria-Hungary campaign;
Ø Article 5: Accept collaboration between Serbia and representatives of the Austria-Hungary government for the suppression of subversive movements which infringed Austria-Hungary’s territorial unity
Ø Article 6: Bring to trial all details about the assassination and allow Austria-Hungary delegates to take part in the investigation to pose legal sanctions on concerned criminals
Serbia accepted all articles except Articles 5 & 6 as they contravened their national sovereignty. Though the majority of European nations accepted Serbia’s response, Austria-Hungary was still not satisfied and declared war with Serbia on 28th July.
Before the outbreak of war, Austria-Hungary requested Germany’s assistance while Serbia has requested Russia’s. Germany issued a “blank cheque” 「空白支票」 on 5th July to show its infinite support. Russia fully supported Serbia, together with President of France Raymond Poincaré普恩加萊 and Prime Minister Viviani維維亞尼 visiting Russia on 20-23 July showing its support to Russia.
Russia announced “general mobilization” 總動員 on 30th July to fully support Serbia, which was followed by a German ultimatum to Russia and Germany’s request for French neutrality. France refused, thus Germany immediately adopted Schlieffen Plan施里芬計劃 to start war with France through Belgium. Britain announced war with Germany as well due to the destruction of Belgium’s比利時 neutrality. Sarajevo Incident therefore transformed into a World War.
C. Significance of Sarajevo Crisis:
Ø It served as the direct cause of the First World War.
Ø Conflict of nationalism caused the chain effect amongst allies and brought the conflicts within territory to a world-scale one.
16. 意大利轉投協約國陣營(1915年)
A. 意大利轉投協約國的背景及原因：
於大戰前，意大利的民族主義情緒主要可見於其對領土的要求(「尚未收復的意大利」 Italian irredentism )。由於意大利認為奧匈霸佔了提洛爾 Tyrol 及伊斯特里亞 Istria 等地，阻礙了意大利的領土統一，故一直希望從奧匈手中奪回該地。
於第一次世界大戰爆發後，法、英兩國以提洛爾、伊斯特里亞、阜姆 Fiume 及達爾馬西亞 Dalmatia 等地利誘意大利，於1915年4月召開倫敦會議並簽訂《倫敦條約》 Treaty of London ，成功使意大利轉投協約國陣營，對同盟國開戰。
B. 意大利轉投協約國的意義：
Ø 意大利正式與德國及奧匈為敵，更成為牽制奧匈軍隊的主力。
Ø 意大利於第一次世界大戰期間死傷慘重，死達60萬人，但卻未能換取《倫敦條約》中的阜姆及達爾馬西亞，故令意大利人極為不滿，有助日後極權法西斯主義的崛興。
16. Italy joining the Allies (1915)
A. Background and Reasons for Italy joining the Allies:
Italy nationalism before war originated from its request for land – “Italy irrendentism”「尚未收復的意大利」. As Italy thought that Austria-Hungary took Tyrol提洛爾 and Istria伊斯特里亞, impeded the unity of Italy’s territory, thus it often hoped to take these places back.
France and Britain persuaded Italy to join them with interest of lands such as Tyrol, Istria, Fiume阜姆 and Dalmatia達爾馬西亞 after the outbreak of First World War. London Conference was called in April 1915 and signed the Treaty of London《倫敦條約》, with Italy joining the Allies and fighting against the Central Powers.
B. Significance of Italy joining the Allies:
Ø Italy officially became enemy of Germany and Austria-Hungary, then became the major army against Austria-Hungary.
Ø Italy suffered from serious hurts and casualties, with 600,000 deaths, yet Italy could not redeem Fiume and Dalmatia as promised in Treaty of London that facilitated the rise of Fascism in the Second World War due to the discontent of Italians.
17. 美國加入第一次世界大戰(1917年)
A. 美國加入第一次世界大戰的背景及原因：
由於第一次世界大戰爆發後，美國大量借貸於協約國，若然協約國戰敗，美國對協約國的貸款則難以收回。因此，基於利益的考慮，美國有必要支持協約國。同時，俄國於1917年二月革命February Revolution後政權不穩，美國擔心俄國退出戰爭會使協約國戰敗，故美國有必要參戰以彌補俄國的位置。
而且，德國的無限制潛艇戰略 Unrestricted submarine warfare 擊沉了美國多艘非軍用船隻，導致美國人大為不滿。於1917年2月，美國揭發德國秘密游說墨西哥向美國宣戰的電報，指德國會協助墨西哥將美國西南部領土還予墨西哥。基於上述原因，美國於1917年4月向德國宣戰。
B. 美國加入第一次世界大戰的意義：
Ø 美國於大戰爆發後3年才加入戰爭，其保持了強大的實力，對於後期協約國取得勝利貢獻重大。
Ø 美國加入第一次世界大戰是美國外交的突破，因美國向來很少干預歐洲的事務，也正正基於美國干預第一次世界大戰，使美國日後難與歐洲劃清界線。
17. USA joining the First World War(1917)
A. Background and Reasons for USA joining the First World War:
During the First World War, USA loaned a large sum to the Allies. If the Allies lost in the War, USA would be very difficult to get its funds back. With consideration of USA’s own interest, USA thought that it was necessary to help the Allies. At the same time, Russia was in unstable political condition after the February Revolution二月革命 in 1917. USA feared that the Russia’s withdrawal from war would lead to the defeat of the Allies, hence it had to replace Russia with its participation in war.
In addition, Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare無限制潛艇戰略 sunk many USA’s non-military fleet which provoked the Americans. USA also found out that Germany secretly sent telegraphs in persuading Mexico to declare war with USA, claiming that Germany would assist Mexico in gaining back Southwestern USA’s territory. Thus, USA declared war to Germany in April 1917.
B. Significance of USA joining the First World War:
Ø USA maintained its strength as it joined the war 3 years after it started, thus contributed greatly to the success of the Allies.
Ø A milestone to USA diplomatic policy: As USA was rarely involved in European affairs, the joining of First World War made USA hard to stay away from it afterwards.
18. 俄國退出第一次世界大戰(1917-18年)
A. 俄國退出第一次世界大戰的背景及原因：
1917年十月革命October Revolution成功推翻了二月革命February Revolution後成立的俄國臨時政府，共產主義的列寧 Lenin 執政，其上台後隨即後與德國談判，宣佈退出第一次世界大戰。最終，於1918年3月蘇聯與德國簽訂《布列斯特—立陶夫斯克條約》 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ，蘇聯割讓25%的土地及44%的人口等苛刻條件以退出戰爭。雖然蘇聯於1918年才與德國簽訂和約，但實質上於1917年11月蘇聯成立後已著手與德國討論和戰事宜。
B. 俄國退出第一次世界大戰的意義：
Ø 雖然俄國退出大戰，但由於美國的加入填補了俄國退出所帶來的勢力真空，故對於協約國取勝未有造成關鍵性的影響。
Ø 由於俄國退出大戰，導致俄國被英、法等國家所怨恨，於1919年巴黎和會中，蘇聯也未有獲邀出席。
18. Russia’s withdrawal from the First World War (1917-18)
A. Background and Reasons for Russia’s withdrawal from WWI:
October Revolution十月革命 in 1917 overthrew the temporary Russian government established in the February Revolution二月革命 with the communist Lenin being the ruler. Lenin negotiated with Germany and announced its withdrawal from WWI. Russia signed Treaty of Brest-Litovsk《布列斯特—立陶夫斯克條約》 with Germany in March 1918: giving up 25% land and 44% population to withdraw from the war. In fact, Russia started to discuss about peace settlement with Germany in November 1917 before officially settled in 1918.
B. Significance of Russia’s withdrawal from WWI
Ø The addition of USA filled the necessary room of strength, thus the Russia’s withdrawal from WWI did not significantly affect the success of the Allies.
Ø Russia provoked Britain and France due to its withdrawal, leading to not being invited in Paris Peace Conference in 1919.
19. 第一次世界大戰結束(1918年)
A. 第一次世界大戰結束的背景：
1918年3月，德國展開三月大反擊，成功俘虜協約國8萬士兵，但由於德軍同樣損失嚴重，加上得不到兵員的補充，相反，美軍則以每月25萬人的速度抵達法國，投入戰爭。最終於1918年9月，協約國發起總攻擊，摧毀德軍防線，迫使德國退出法國領土，德國敗局已定。
德國政府於1918年10月改組，由麥克斯 Maximilian 親王出任總理，並馬上提出議和。10月28日，德國基爾 Kiel 軍港發生兵變，起事者仿效俄國革命形式，成立「蘇維埃」 Soviet。德國各地也效尤起事，反政府浪潮傳至柏林，威廉二世被迫退位，逃亡荷蘭；麥克斯也下台，由多數社會黨的艾伯特Friedrich Ebert繼位總理，在11月成立威瑪共和國 Weimar Republic 。在巴爾幹戰線方面，土耳其及保加利相繼投降，奧匈帝國最終於1918年11月與協約國簽訂停戰協定，退出戰爭。
1918年11月，第一次世界大戰宣告結束。戰勝國於1919年1月於法國巴黎召開巴黎和會，商討戰後的問題與條約的安排。
19. End of the First World War (1918)
A. Background of end of First World War:
Germany’s Spring Offensive in March 1918 successfully took 80000 soldiers from the Allies as prisoners of war. However, Germany also suffered greatly from the loss of soldiers and having not sufficient supplementary soldiers. On the contrary, USA arranged 250,000 soldiers per month to France for the War. At the end, The Allies initiated the ultimate attack that destroyed the German barrier in September 1918 that forced Germany to leave French territory, signifying the loss of Germany.
Reconstruction of German government took place in October 1918, with Maximilian麥克斯 being the Prime Minister, initiating peace settlement. Military revolution took place in Port Kiel基爾 in Germany on 28th October, which was an imitation of Russian Revolution with the establishment of Soviet「蘇維埃」. Various places of Germany had uprisings, leading to the spread of anti-government campaign to spread to Berlin. William II left his throne to the Netherlands with Maximilian stepping down. Friedrich Ebert艾伯特 from the Social Democratic Party became the Prime Minister in November 1918 with the establishment of Weimar Republic威瑪共和國. On the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey and Bulgaria surrendered. Austria-Hungary signed the cease-fire agreement in November 1918 and withdrew from the war.
WWI was declared an end in November 1918. The Allies initiated The Paris Peace Conference in January 1919 in discussion of post-war issues and arrangements of peace treaties.
11.巴黎和會 Paris Peace Conference (1919年)
A. 巴黎和會的召開背景：
隨著1918年11月第一次世界大戰的結束，列強開始商討有關於戰後的安排及對戰敗國的懲罰條約。為此，各國於1919年1月在巴黎凡爾賽宮Palace of Versailles 召開了巴黎和會。會議多達32個國家參與，但實際決定權在「三巨頭」‘Big Three’，分別為美國總統威爾遜 Woodrew Wilson、英國首相勞萊喬治Lloyd George及法國總理克里孟梭Clemenceau。另外，由於戰敗國被視為是發動戰爭的一方，加上俄國因於大戰期間退出戰爭，故戰敗國及俄國均未被獲邀參與會議。
B. 三巨頭於會上的立場及目標：
Ø 法國克里孟梭：由於克里孟梭見證過德國兩次佔據法國(1870-71普法戰爭Franco-
Prussian War 及1914-18第一次世界大戰)，故克里孟梭強烈要求嚴懲德國，一方面報普法戰爭戰敗之辱，並取回阿爾薩斯Alsace及洛林Lorraine。另一方面，藉苛刻的條約令德國保持衰弱，無力再發動戰爭。
Ø 美國威爾遜：由於美國於大戰中的損失並非十分嚴重，加上威爾遜不希望日後戰敗
國會因苛刻的條款而再次發動戰爭。因此，威爾遜主張用公平、公正的方式制定對戰敗國的條約，故提出了「和平十四點」Fourteen Points，主張制定較溫和的條款。
Ø 英國勞萊喬治：由於第一次世界大戰使英國人命傷亡嚴重，故英人主張嚴懲德國。
但另一方面，德國於戰前是英國的第二大貿易伙伴，因此為經濟利益著想，對德國制定苛刻的條款也是不智之舉。因此，勞萊喬治擔當中間人的角色，協調法國及美國雙方的意見。
C. 《凡爾賽條約》Treaty of Versailles (1919年6月)(對德國)
最終，條約採取了較嚴厲的方向懲治德國。
I. 領土方面：
Ø 東面：德國交出從俄國所得的領土，並建立芬蘭Finland 、立陶宛Lithuania
等新國家。另外，西普魯士west Prussia及波森Posen交予波蘭Poland，以創建「波蘭走廊」Polish Corridor，但「波蘭走廊」卻將東普魯士與德國本土分割。
Ø 南面：德國不准與奧地利Austria結盟或與之合併。
Ø 西面：阿爾薩斯Alsace及洛林Lorraine歸還予法國。薩爾Saar地區的煤礦
交由法國開採，並由國際聯盟交為管理15年，期後根據公民投票決定歸屬。
Ø 北面：北什列斯威Northern Schleswig給予丹麥Denmark。
Ø 整體：合共喪失了約10%的領土及人口(準確數據為13%領土及12%人口)。
II. 軍事方面：
Ø 陸軍方面：德國須要廢除徵兵制Conscription，並將陸軍人數限至10萬人，
也不能擁有坦克等重型軍事武器。
Ø 海軍方面：只准許保留6艘主力艦Battleship，潛艇Submarine被禁止使用。
Ø 空軍方面：不能建造及擁有軍用飛機。
Ø 地區方面：萊茵河區Rhineland被劃為非軍事區Demilitarized zone，並由協
約國佔領15年。
III. 殖民地方面：
Ø 德國需要放棄殖民地領土(非洲、太平洋及中國)，交由戰勝國以國際聯盟的名義託管。
IV. 賠款方面：
Ø 德國需要賠款66億英鎊(330億美元)。
V. 戰爭罪責方面：
Ø 德國需要承擔發動戰爭的全部責任war guilt clause。
D. 《聖澤門條約》Treaty of Saint Germain (1919年9月)(對奧地利)
Ø 奧匈帝國正式瓦解，並分裂為奧地利Austria及匈牙利Hungary兩個獨立國家。
Ø 奧匈的領土根據民族自決The right of nations to self-determination的原則被劃分出來，建立捷克斯洛伐克Czechoslovakia (捷克人Czechs及斯洛伐克人Slovak)和南斯拉夫Yugoslavia (塞爾維亞人Serb、克羅地亞人Croat及斯洛伐克人)。
Ø 割讓蘇台德區Sudetenland予捷克；伊斯特里亞Istria和南提洛爾South Tyrol予意大利。
Ø 禁止德國與奧地利合併。
Ø 奧地利須支付部分戰爭賠款。
Ø 奧地利須削減海陸軍。
E. 對其他戰敗國的和約(1919-20年)(保加利亞、匈牙利及土耳其)
Ø 對土耳其的《賽佛爾條約》Treaty of Sèvres：埃及和蘇丹脫離土耳其，成為新的獨立國家。巴勒斯坦、敘利亞、黎巴嫩、伊拉克等地交由英、法託管。
Ø 對匈牙利的《特里亞農條約》Treaty of Trianon：特蘭西凡尼亞Transylvania割讓予羅馬尼亞。
Ø 對保加利亞的《納伊條約》Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine：割讓西色魯斯Western Thrace予希臘。把西部邊境的領土給予南斯拉夫。
20. Paris Peace Conference巴黎和會 (1919)
A. Background of calling Paris Peace Conference:
The great powers started to discuss post-war arrangements and punishing treaties for defeated nations after the end of WWI in November 1918. Paris Peace Conference was thus held in Palace of Versailles凡爾賽宮 in January 1919. Power of controlling the conference and making decisions fell only on “Big Three”三巨頭 – Woodrow Wilson威爾遜 (President of United States), Lloyd George勞萊喬治(Prime Minister of Britain) and Clemenceau克里孟梭(Prime Minister of France) though there were 32 participating countries. Defeated nations and Russia were not invited to the conference as defeated nations were considered as those initiated the war, together with the Russian withdrawal of war in 1918.
B. Missions and Stances of “Big Three” in the Conference:
Ø Clemenceau (France): He required harsh punishment on Germany as Germany
invaded France twice in Franco-Prussian War普法戰爭(1870-71) and WWI (1914-18). As a result, France could take revenge on its defeat in Franco-Prussian War, as well as retrieving Alsace阿爾薩斯 and Lorraine洛林. Tough treaties could also help keep Germany weak to prevent future war.
Ø Woodrow Wilson (United States): He suggested using fair and appropriate
methods to set treaties for defeated nations under the principle of Wilson’s Fourteen Points和平十四點 with less harsh treaties as United States did not suffer from great loss during war and did not wish to see outbreak of war in future due to tough treaties set on defeated nations.
Ø Lloyd George (Britain): He required strong punishment on Germany as Britain
suffered from large number of deaths and injuries. However, Lloyd chose to be a mediator to balance opinion between France and US as setting harsh treaties on Germany would not be good in terms of economic benefits given that Germany was the second greatest trading partner of Britain before war.
C. Treaty of Versailles (June 1919) (For Germany)
Harsh treaty was adopted in punishing Germany.
I. Regarding Germany’s territory:
Ø East : Germany was required to give up territory from Russia and establish new
nations such as Finland and Lithuania. West Prussia and Posen was required to be given to Poland for establishing Polish Corridor. Polish Corridor made East Prussia to be divided from Germany’s territory.
Ø South : Germany was prohibited to ally with or annex Austria.
Ø West : Alsace and Lorraine were required to be returned to France. Mining site
in Saar was given to France for extraction and to be managed by League of Nations for 15 years. The right of management will be determined by referendum afterwards.
Ø North : Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark.
Ø Overall: Germany lost more than 10% of its population and territory (13% of its
territory and 12% of its population in exact).
II. Regarding Germany’s military:
Ø Land Forces: Conscription scheme was required to be abolished, together with
the number of land soldiers to be limited to 100,000 as well as prohibition of use of heavy weapons such as tankers.
Ø Naval Forces: Only 6 battleships were required to be possessed with prohibition
of use of submarines.
Ø Air Forces : Germany was not allowed to build or possess any military-use
airplanes.
Ø Territory : Demilitarization in Rhineland was required with 15-year invasion by
Allies.
III. Regarding Germany’s colonies:
Ø Germany was required to abandon colonies in Pacific Ocean, Africa and China which were to be managed by victorious nations under the name of League of Nations
IV. Regarding Germany’s indemnities:
Ø Germany was required to pay an indemnity of 6.6 billion pounds (33 billion USD)
V. Regarding War Guilt Clause:
Ø Germany was required to accept War Guilt Clause.
D. Treaty of Saint Germain聖澤門條約 (September 1919) (For Austria)
Ø Austria-Hungary was officially spilt up and divided into Austria奧地利 and Hungary匈牙利 as two independent states.
Ø Territory of Austria-Hungary was divided under the principle of “The Right of Nations to Self-determination”民族自決 with the establishment of Czechoslovakia捷克斯洛伐克 (Czechs捷克人 and Slovak斯洛伐克人) and Yugoslavia南斯拉夫(Serb塞爾維亞人, Croat克羅地亞人 and Slovak).
Ø Sudetenland蘇台德區 was granted to Czechoslovakia; Istria伊斯特里亞 and South Tyrol南提洛爾 were given to Italy.
Ø Annexation of Austria and Germany was prohibited.
Ø Austria was required to pay certain war indemnities.
Ø Austria was required to disarm its land and naval forces.
E. Treaties on other defeated nations (Bulgaria, Hungary and Turkey) (1919-20)
Ø Treaty of Sèvres賽佛爾條約 on Turkey: Sudan and Egypt were granted independence away from Turkey’s rule. Pakistan, Syria, Iraq and Lebanon were to be managed by Britain and France.
Ø Treaty of Trianon特里亞農條約 on Hungary: Transylvania was ceded to Romania.
Ø Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine納伊條約 on Bulgaria: Western Tharce was ceded to Greece with western part of its territory to be given to Yugoslavia.
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