1. 巴黎和會 Paris Peace Conference (1919年)
A. 巴黎和會的召開背景：
隨著1918年11月第一次世界大戰的結束，列強開始商討有關於戰後的安排及對戰敗國的懲罰條約。為此，各國於1919年1月在巴黎凡爾賽宮Palace of Versailles 召開了巴黎和會。會議多達32個國家參與，但實際決定權在「三巨頭」‘Big Three’，分別為美國總統威爾遜 Woodrew Wilson、英國首相勞萊喬治Lloyd George及法國總理克里孟梭Clemenceau。另外，由於戰敗國被視為是發動戰爭的一方，加上俄國因於大戰期間退出戰爭，故戰敗國及俄國均未被獲邀參與會議。
B. 三巨頭於會上的立場及目標：
Ø 法國克里孟梭：由於克里孟梭見證過德國兩次佔據法國(1870-71普法戰爭Franco-
Prussian War 及1914-18第一次世界大戰)，故克里孟梭強烈要求嚴懲德國，一方面報普法戰爭戰敗之辱，並取回阿爾薩斯Alsace及洛林Lorraine。另一方面，藉苛刻的條約令德國保持衰弱，無力再發動戰爭。
Ø 美國威爾遜：由於美國於大戰中的損失並非十分嚴重，加上威爾遜不希望日後戰敗
國會因苛刻的條款而再次發動戰爭。因此，威爾遜主張用公平、公正的方式制定對戰敗國的條約，故提出了「和平十四點」Fourteen Points，主張制定較溫和的條款。
Ø 英國勞萊喬治：由於第一次世界大戰使英國人命傷亡嚴重，故英人主張嚴懲德國。
但另一方面，德國於戰前是英國的第二大貿易伙伴，因此為經濟利益著想，對德國制定苛刻的條款也是不智之舉。因此，勞萊喬治擔當中間人的角色，協調法國及美國雙方的意見。
C. 《凡爾賽條約》Treaty of Versailles (1919年6月)(對德國)
最終，條約採取了較嚴厲的方向懲治德國。
I. 領土方面：
Ø 東面：德國交出從俄國所得的領土，並建立芬蘭Finland 、立陶宛Lithuania
等新國家。另外，西普魯士west Prussia及波森Posen交予波蘭Poland，以創建「波蘭走廊」Polish Corridor，但「波蘭走廊」卻將東普魯士與德國本土分割。
Ø 南面：德國不准與奧地利Austria結盟或與之合併。
Ø 西面：阿爾薩斯Alsace及洛林Lorraine歸還予法國。薩爾Saar地區的煤礦
交由法國開採，並由國際聯盟交為管理15年，期後根據公民投票決定歸屬。
Ø 北面：北什列斯威Northern Schleswig給予丹麥Denmark。
Ø 整體：合共喪失了約10%的領土及人口(準確數據為13%領土及12%人口)。
II. 軍事方面：
Ø 陸軍方面：德國須要廢除徵兵制Conscription，並將陸軍人數限至10萬人，
也不能擁有坦克等重型軍事武器。
Ø 海軍方面：只准許保留6艘主力艦Battleship，潛艇Submarine被禁止使用。
Ø 空軍方面：不能建造及擁有軍用飛機。
Ø 地區方面：萊茵河區Rhineland被劃為非軍事區Demilitarized zone，並由協
約國佔領15年。
III. 殖民地方面：
Ø 德國需要放棄殖民地領土(非洲、太平洋及中國)，交由戰勝國以國際聯盟的名義託管。
IV. 賠款方面：
Ø 德國需要賠款66億英鎊(330億美元)。
V. 戰爭罪責方面：
Ø 德國需要承擔發動戰爭的全部責任war guilt clause。
D. 《聖澤門條約》Treaty of Saint Germain (1919年9月)(對奧地利)
Ø 奧匈帝國正式瓦解，並分裂為奧地利Austria及匈牙利Hungary兩個獨立國家。
Ø 奧匈的領土根據民族自決The right of nations to self-determination的原則被劃分出來，建立捷克斯洛伐克Czechoslovakia (捷克人Czechs及斯洛伐克人Slovak)和南斯拉夫Yugoslavia (塞爾維亞人Serb、克羅地亞人Croat及斯洛伐克人)。
Ø 割讓蘇台德區Sudetenland予捷克；伊斯特里亞Istria和南提洛爾South Tyrol予意大利。
Ø 禁止德國與奧地利合併。
Ø 奧地利須支付部分戰爭賠款。
Ø 奧地利須削減海陸軍。
E. 對其他戰敗國的和約(1919-20年)(保加利亞、匈牙利及土耳其)
Ø 對土耳其的《賽佛爾條約》Treaty of Sèvres：埃及和蘇丹脫離土耳其，成為新的獨立國家。巴勒斯坦、敘利亞、黎巴嫩、伊拉克等地交由英、法託管。
Ø 對匈牙利的《特里亞農條約》Treaty of Trianon：特蘭西凡尼亞Transylvania割讓予羅馬尼亞。
Ø 對保加利亞的《納伊條約》Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine：割讓西色魯斯Western Thrace予希臘。把西部邊境的領土給予南斯拉夫。
1. Paris Peace Conference巴黎和會 (1919)
A. Background of calling Paris Peace Conference:
The great powers started to discuss post-war arrangements and punishing treaties for defeated nations after the end of WWI in November 1918. Paris Peace Conference was thus held in Palace of Versailles凡爾賽宮 in January 1919. Power of controlling the conference and making decisions fell only on “Big Three”三巨頭 – Woodrow Wilson威爾遜 (President of United States), Lloyd George勞萊喬治(Prime Minister of Britain) and Clemenceau克里孟梭(Prime Minister of France) though there were 32 participating countries. Defeated nations and Russia were not invited to the conference as defeated nations were considered as those initiated the war, together with the Russian withdrawal of war in 1918.
B. Missions and Stances of “Big Three” in the Conference:
Ø Clemenceau (France): He required harsh punishment on Germany as Germany
invaded France twice in Franco-Prussian War普法戰爭(1870-71) and WWI (1914-18). As a result, France could take revenge on its defeat in Franco-Prussian War, as well as retrieving Alsace阿爾薩斯 and Lorraine洛林. Tough treaties could also help keep Germany weak to prevent future war.
Ø Woodrow Wilson (United States): He suggested using fair and appropriate
methods to set treaties for defeated nations under the principle of Wilson’s Fourteen Points和平十四點 with less harsh treaties as United States did not suffer from great loss during war and did not wish to see outbreak of war in future due to tough treaties set on defeated nations.
Ø Lloyd George (Britain): He required strong punishment on Germany as Britain
suffered from large number of deaths and injuries. However, Lloyd chose to be a mediator to balance opinion between France and US as setting harsh treaties on Germany would not be good in terms of economic benefits given that Germany was the second greatest trading partner of Britain before war.
C. Treaty of Versailles (June 1919) (For Germany)
Harsh treaty was adopted in punishing Germany.
I. Regarding Germany’s territory:
Ø East : Germany was required to give up territory from Russia and establish new
nations such as Finland and Lithuania. West Prussia and Posen was required to be given to Poland for establishing Polish Corridor. Polish Corridor made East Prussia to be divided from Germany’s territory.
Ø South : Germany was prohibited to ally with or annex Austria.
Ø West : Alsace and Lorraine were required to be returned to France. Mining site
in Saar was given to France for extraction and to be managed by League of Nations for 15 years. The right of management will be determined by referendum afterwards.
Ø North : Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark.
Ø Overall: Germany lost more than 10% of its population and territory (13% of its
territory and 12% of its population in exact).
II. Regarding Germany’s military:
Ø Land Forces: Conscription scheme was required to be abolished, together with
the number of land soldiers to be limited to 100,000 as well as prohibition of use of heavy weapons such as tankers.
Ø Naval Forces: Only 6 battleships were required to be possessed with prohibition
of use of submarines.
Ø Air Forces : Germany was not allowed to build or possess any military-use
airplanes.
Ø Territory : Demilitarization in Rhineland was required with 15-year invasion by
Allies.
III. Regarding Germany’s colonies:
Ø Germany was required to abandon colonies in Pacific Ocean, Africa and China which were to be managed by victorious nations under the name of League of Nations
IV. Regarding Germany’s indemnities:
Ø Germany was required to pay an indemnity of 6.6 billion pounds (33 billion USD)
V. Regarding War Guilt Clause:
Ø Germany was required to accept War Guilt Clause.
D. Treaty of Saint Germain聖澤門條約 (September 1919) (For Austria)
Ø Austria-Hungary was officially spilt up and divided into Austria奧地利 and Hungary匈牙利 as two independent states.
Ø Territory of Austria-Hungary was divided under the principle of “The Right of Nations to Self-determination”民族自決 with the establishment of Czechoslovakia捷克斯洛伐克 (Czechs捷克人 and Slovak斯洛伐克人) and Yugoslavia南斯拉夫(Serb塞爾維亞人, Croat克羅地亞人 and Slovak).
Ø Sudetenland蘇台德區 was granted to Czechoslovakia; Istria伊斯特里亞 and South Tyrol南提洛爾 were given to Italy.
Ø Annexation of Austria and Germany was prohibited.
Ø Austria was required to pay certain war indemnities.
Ø Austria was required to disarm its land and naval forces.
E. Treaties on other defeated nations (Bulgaria, Hungary and Turkey) (1919-20)
Ø Treaty of Sèvres賽佛爾條約 on Turkey: Sudan and Egypt were granted independence away from Turkey’s rule. Pakistan, Syria, Iraq and Lebanon were to be managed by Britain and France.
Ø Treaty of Trianon特里亞農條約 on Hungary: Transylvania was ceded to Romania.
Ø Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine納伊條約 on Bulgaria: Western Tharce was ceded to Greece with western part of its territory to be given to Yugoslavia.
2. 國際聯盟成立Establishment of the League of Nations (1920年)
A. 國際聯盟的成立背景及原因：
由於第一次世界大戰造成慘重的人命傷亡及經濟損失，故美國總統威爾遜於「和平十四點」Fourteen Points中提出成立一維持和平的國際組織。結果，國際聯盟於1920年1月成立。
B. 國際聯盟的主要宗旨：
Ø 解決國際糾紛，防止戰爭爆發；
Ø 推動國際合作；
Ø 推動各國裁減軍備；
C. 國際聯盟應對侵略的三步曲：
Ø 譴責Moral Condemnation；
Ø 經濟制裁Economic Sanctions；
Ø 軍事行動Military Action。
D. 國聯的主要組織：
Ø 會員大會Assembly：由所有成員國組成，每成員國有一投票權。
Ø 理事會Council：負責指導會員大會，由常任理事國及非常任理事國組成。英、法、意、日為國聯成立時四個常任理事國，及後德國於1926-1933年間也成為常任理事國。非常任理事國則由會員大會選出，席位由1920年的4個增至1926年的9個。
Ø 秘書處Secretariat：負責一切有關國聯的事務，包括安排議程及聯絡各國政府等。
Ø 國際法庭Permanent Court of International Justice(PCIJ)：通過法律以解決國際糾紛。
E. 需要留意的國際聯盟會員國：
Ø 美國 ：因美國國內反對，故一直未有加入國聯。
Ø 蘇聯 ：各國對共產主義感到恐懼，到1934年與西方關係稍為改善時才獲
加入，但於1939年與德國簽訂《互不侵犯條約》Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact後被取消會籍。
Ø 日本 ：國聯一開始的常任理事國，但於因「九一八事變」September 18th
Incident及「一二八事變」January 28th Incident後受國聯譴責而於1933年退出。
Ø 德國 ：1926年獲准加入並成為常任理事國permanent member state，但卻
於1933年希特拉上台後退出。
Ø 意大利：國聯一開始的會員國，於1935年入侵阿比西尼亞Abyssinia後受到
國聯的譴責及經濟制裁，最終於1937年退出。
F. 國際聯盟解決國際衝突的成就(主要是1920年代較輕微的領土糾紛)：
Ø 1920年：芬蘭Finland與瑞典Sweden爭奪阿蘭群島Aland Islands的糾紛於
國聯調停下獲得解決，阿蘭群島最終屬於芬蘭所有。
Ø 1921年：德國與波蘭Poland對於上西里西亞Upper Silesia的領土主權有所
爭議。結果，於國聯調停下，大部分上西里西亞的土地歸屬德國，而波蘭則擁有資源較豐富的小部分上西里西亞土地。
Ø 1923年：意大利炮轟希臘Greece的科孚島Corfu Island，於國聯調停下，意
大利撤軍作出退讓。
Ø 1925年：希臘入侵保加利亞Bulgaria被國聯所譴責，最終希臘作出讓步。
Ø 1932年：日本於「一二八事變」January 28th Incident後與中國持續了數個
月的戰爭，但後來成功被國聯及美國所調停，簽訂了《上海停戰協定》Shanghai Ceasefire Agreement。但長期而言，國聯無助解決日本侵略中國的問題。
G. 國際聯盟解決社會及經濟議題上的成就：
Ø 社會：提倡結束奴隸制度、安排難民問題、阻止國際性毒品販賣、遏止傳染
病的傳播等。
Ø 經濟：提倡勞工保護法案等。
H. 國際聯盟未能有效解決國際衝突的例子：
Ø 1931年 ：「九一八事變」September 18 Incident後，雖然國聯經過了一年
的調查證明日本的行動乃屬於侵略，並譴責日本及要求日軍撤出中國，但日本無視國聯的意見，並視國聯為阻礙其進行侵略的屏障，於1933年退出國聯。
Ø 1935年 ：德國重新將萊茵河區Rhineland軍事化，國聯只能譴責德國的
舉動違反了《羅加諾公約》Locarno Treaties。
Ø 1935年 ：意大利入侵非洲阿比西尼亞Abyssinia，國聯雖然譴責意大利及
實施經濟制裁，但制裁的物品並不包括石油、鐵、鋼及煤等戰略物資，而且美國等非國聯成員國不包括在內，國聯更於1936年7月解除了經濟制裁，反映經濟制裁缺乏效用。意大利最終成功吞併阿比西尼亞，並於1937年退出國聯。
Ø 1937年 ：日本於「七七事變」July 7th Incident後全面入侵中國，國聯要
求日本暫時恢復會員國身份並合作解決爭端，但遭日本拒絕。理事會要求各會員國對日本進行個別制裁，但毫無成效，日本繼續侵略中國。
Ø 1938-39年：德國吞併奧地利Austria、蘇台德區Sudetenland、捷克斯洛伐克
Czechoslovakia及突襲波蘭Poland時，國聯對阻止侵略並無效用。
I. 國際聯盟未能有效解決衝突的原因：
Ø 大國並未有同一時期加入國聯：如美國從來沒有加入、德國僅於1926-33年為成員國、蘇聯僅於1934-39年間加入、日本及意大利分別於1933年及1937年退出。由於欠缺大國的支持，使國聯變得缺乏代表性，於實行經濟制裁時，也由於部分大國並非成員國，故令經濟制裁未能有效打擊侵略國。
Ø 缺乏軍事力量：由於國聯由英、法等國所支持，自身並無獨立部隊，故一旦英、法衰弱，國聯也隨之變得軟弱，缺乏強大的軍事力量以遏止侵略行為，如1930年代日本侵略中國及1935年意大利侵略阿比西尼亞Abyssinia時，國聯均無軍事能力介入調停。
Ø 成員國根據自己的利益而作出支持：如1932年日本於「一二八事變」January 28th Incident後對上海的侵略損害了英、法等國的利益，故國聯作出較有效的調停，但當事件並未涉及己國利益時，如意大利於1935年侵略阿比西尼亞Abyssinia時，英、法則寧願犧牲阿比西尼亞以換取和平。
Ø 會議的決議缺乏效力：由於國聯的罰則溫和，極其量也只是譴責或進行經濟制裁，故難以令侵略國遵從決議，如1931年日本侵略中國東北時(「九一八事變」September 18th Incident)，雖然全體大會以13票對1票贊成日本撤離滿洲Manchuria，但日本無視決議，更於1933年退出國聯。
2. Establishment of League of Nations (1920)
A. Background and Reasons of establishing League of Nations:
Wilson’s Fourteen Points和平十四點 proposed the establishment of a peace-keeping international organization given the huge economic loss, deaths and injuries of WWI. League of Nations was thus set up in January 1920.
B. Objectives of League of Nations:
Ø Resolve international conflicts to prevent outbreak of war
Ø Promote international cooperation
Ø Promote disarmament of each nation
C. Three-step mechanism adopted by the League in face of invasions:
Ø Moral Condemnation譴責;
Ø Economic Sanctions經濟制裁;
Ø Military Action軍事行動.
D. Major organizations of League of Nations:
Ø Assembly會員大會: made up of all member nations, each with rights to vote
Ø Council理事會: responsible for guiding Assembly – made up of permanent (France, Britain, Italy and Japan; with Germany as well during 1926-33) and non-permanent states (elected in Assembly, increased in the number from 4 in 1920 to 9 in 1926)
Ø Secretariat秘書處: responsible for dealing affairs of League of Nations, arranging agenda and contacting each nation’s government
Ø Permanent Court of International Justice(PCIJ)國際法庭: resolving international disputes in a lawful manner
E. Worth-looking member states in League of Nations:
Ø United States : Not joining the League due to citizens’ opposition.
Ø Soviet Union : Being invited to join when better relationship was weaved with
Western states in 1934 given the fear of communism, yet its membership was cancelled when Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact互不侵犯條約 was signed in 1939.
Ø Japan : Served as permanent member state since establishment, yet
withdrew in 1933 after being condemned in September 18th Incident九一八事變 and January 28th Incident一二八事變.
Ø Germany : Served as permanent member state常任理事國 since 1926, yet
withdrew when Hitler started ruling in 1933.
Ø Italy : Served as a member state since establishment, however
condemnation and economic sanction were granted after its invasion in Abyssinia阿比西尼亞 in 1935, and withdrew in 1937.
F. Achievements of League of Nations in solving international conflicts
Ø Year 1920: Conflict between Finland芬蘭 and Sweden瑞典 in fighting for
Aaland Islands阿蘭群島 was solved under the assistance of League of Nations. Finland was granted the right to rule Aaland Islands.
Ø Year 1921: Conflict between Germany and Poland波蘭 regarding sovereignty of
Upper Silesia上西里西亞 was solved under the assistance of League of Nations. Large portion of Upper Silesia was under the rule of Germany, while small yet the more resourceful part of Upper Silesia was under the rule of Poland.
Ø Year 1923: Italy bombarded Greece’s Corfu Island希臘科孚島. Italy conceded
after mediation of League of Nations.
Ø Year 1925: Greece’s invasion into Bulgaria保加利亞 was condemned by League
of Nations, leading to Greece’s concession
Ø Year 1932: Japan initiated war with China for several months after January 28th
Incident一二八事變. The war was successfully mediated by League of Nations and United States. Shanghai Ceasefire Agreement上海停戰協定 was signed, yet this did not effectively solve Japanese invasion in China in the long run.
G. Achievements of League of Nations in solving social and economic issues:
Ø Social : Advocating the prohibition of slavery system, solution of refugee
conflicts, ban of international drugs trade, stopping of infectious diseases, etc.
Ø Economic: Advocating laws in protecting labour, etc.
H. Examples of League of Nations failing to solve international conflicts:
Ø Year 1931 : Despite League of Nations conducted an one-year investigation
in proving Japanese act in September 18th Incident九一八事變 as an invasion, condemned Japan and required Japanese soldiers to evacuate from China, Japan ignored the League and considered the League as their hurdle to initiate invasions. Thus, Japan withdrew from the League in 1933.
Ø Year 1935 : Germany remilitarized Rhineland萊茵河區, resulting in the
League’s condemnation as it contravened Locarno Treaties羅加諾公約.
Ø Year 1935 : Condemnation and economic sanction made on Italy’s invasion
into Abyssinia阿比西尼亞 were not effective as the economic sanction did not include military products such as iron, steel and coal. The sanction also did not prohibit interaction between Italy and United States
Ø Year 1937 : League of Nations requested Japan to temporarily return as a
member state to seek for solution to the conflict rose from Japanese full invasion into China after July 7th Incident七七事變. Yet, Japan rejected. The council then requested each member state to make individual invasion against Japan. However, it resulted with low effectiveness which enabled Japan to continue its invasion.
Ø Year 1938-39: League of Nations failed to stop Germany’s invasion into Austria奧
地利, Sudetenland蘇台德區, Czechoslovakia捷克斯洛伐克 and sudden attack to Poland波蘭.
I. Reasons for the failure of League of Nations in solving disputes:
Ø Great powers did not enter League of Nations at the same time: United States did not enter the League, while Germany and Soviet Union joined during 1926-33 and 1934-39 respectively. Japan and Italy withdrew in 1933 and 1937 respectively. League of Nations lost its representativeness when there was absence of support by great powers. In addition, as some of the nations were not member states, economic sanction from the League lost effectiveness in reducing aggression.
Ø Lack of military strength: Granted League of Nations was supported by Britain and France, it did not have its individual army. Hence, the League grew weak and failed to stop aggressive acts with military strength when international competitiveness of Britain and France reduced. This was illustrated by the League failing to mediate with military power in Japan’s invasion into China and Italy’s invasion into Abyssinia阿比西尼亞.
Ø Support made by member state depended merely on its own interest: January 28th Incident一二八事變 of Japan into Shanghai in 1932 affected interests of Britain and France, thus forcing the League to make more effective mediation. However, during Italy’s invasion into Abyssinia阿比西尼亞 in 1935, Britain and France sacrificed it in return for peace as the two countries were not in conflict of interest with Italy.
Ø Decisions made by League of Nations were of low effectiveness: As the League was lenient in setting punishing consequences, with most of them being economic sanctions and condemnations, leading to aggressive states not complying with the League’s decisions. This was illustrated by Japan ignoring the League’s decision of being required to evacuate from Manchuria滿洲 even there were 13 supporting and 1 opposing vote(s) when Japan invaded northeastern China in 1931 (September 18th Incident九一八事變). Japan even withdrew from the League in 1933.
3. 華盛頓會議 Washington Conference(1921-22年)
A. 華盛頓會議的召開背景及原因：
華盛頓會議由美國召開，並於1921年11月舉行。美國於一次大戰後實行孤立政策，盡量避免接觸國際事務，但由於日本於太平洋的海軍軍力急速膨脹，加上巴黎和會對於中國東北的利益問題未有得到有效的解決，故美國倡議召開會議，英、法、意、比、荷、葡、中、日參加。最終簽訂了《四國公約》Four-Power Treaty、《五國公約》Five-Power Treaty及《九國公約》Nine Power Agreement。
B. 《四國公約》Four-Power Treaty的內容(美、英、法、日簽訂)：
Ø 當任何兩個簽署國於太平洋地區發生爭端時，則以全體簽署國舉行會議解決；
Ø 互相尊重各簽署國於太平洋地區的利益。
C. 《五國公約》Five-Power Treaty的內容(美、英、法、日、意簽訂)：
Ø 同意十年內停止建造排水量超過3.5萬噸的主力艦Battleship；
Ø 規定五國的主力艦總噸位的比例為5(美)：5(英)：3(日)：1.75(法)：1.75(意)；
Ø 航空母艦Aircraft Carrier的總噸位限額為美英各13.5萬噸、日本8.1萬噸、法意各6萬噸；
Ø 美、英、日在太平洋地區所佔的島嶼維持現狀。
D. 《九國公約》Nine Power Agreement的內容(所有參與國簽訂)：
Ø 締約國需要尊重中國的主權獨立及領土完整；
Ø 維持各國在中國全境工商業機會均等的原則；
Ø 各國不得因私利而損害其他締約國在華的利益；
Ø 各國不能謀求在華的專利或優越權。
E. 華盛頓會議的意義：
Ø 《四國公約》瓦解了英日同盟，使英日的關係日漸疏離。
Ø 《五國公約》只規定了五國的主力艦Battleship與航空母艦Aircraft Carrier的噸位，但對於巡洋艦Small Cruiser以下的輔助艦及陸、空兩軍均未有規定，故成效不大。
Ø 《五國公約》雖然規定了海軍主力艦的噸位比例，但卻缺乏罰則，換言之，條約乃一紙空文。
Ø 《九國公約》迫使日本交出其在華的權益，令日本大為不滿。
Ø 整體而言，日本認為華盛頓會議是限制其於軍備上及遠東的擴張而舉行的，令日本仇恨西方國家，有助軍國主義於日本國內的興起。
3. Washington Conference (1921-22)
A. Background and Reasons for calling Washington Conference:
United States called for Washington Conference in November 1921. United States adopted isolationism policy after WWI to prevent participation in international affairs. However, as Japanese naval strength grew rapidly in Pacific Ocean, together with Paris Peace Conference failing to solve interest issue of Manchuria well, United States called for conference with the participation by Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Portugal, China and Japan. Four-Power Treaty四國公約, Five-Power Treaty五國公約, Nine Power Agreement九國公約 were signed.
B. Content of Four-Power Treaty四國公約 (United States, Britain, France, Japan):
Ø When two of the signed nations were in conflict in the Pacific, it should be solved with conference held amongst all signed nations.
Ø Mutually respect each signed nation’s interest in the Pacific.
C. Content of Five-Power Treaty五國公約(United States, Britain, France, Japan, Italy):
Ø Agree to stop constructing battleships主力艦 with 35,000 tons or more displacement.
Ø Restrict the five nations’ battleships’ tonnage: 5(US): 5(Britain) : 3(Japan) : 1.75(France) : 1.75(Italy)
Ø Restrict the five nations’ aircraft carriers’航空母艦 tonnage to be 135000 for US and Britain, 81000 for Japan and 60000 for both France and Italy.
Ø United States, Japan and Britain remained control of its own islands in the Pacific
D. Content of Nine-Power Treaty九國公約 (Signed by all participating nations):
Ø All nations were required to respect China’s sovereignty and territorial unity.
Ø Equal business opportunities in China should be remained for each nation.
Ø Each nation was not allowed to harm another’s interest in China in light of own profits.
Ø Each nation was not allowed to seek for patent in China or privileges in China.
E. Significance of Washington Conference:
Ø Four-Power Treaty broke Anglo-Japanese Entente, making Britain and Japan having distant relationship.
Ø Five-Power Treaty only restricted tonnage of battleship and aircraft carrier航空母艦, yet did not pose any restrictions on land, air power or assistant cruisers under small cruisers巡洋艦. This resulted in low effectiveness.
Ø Five-Power Treaty only restricted tonnage ratio of battleships yet did not establish any significant punishments. This resulted in simply zero effectiveness.
Ø Nine-Power Treaty infuriated Japan as it was forced to give up its interest in China.
Ø In general, Japan thought that Washington Conference was held to restrict its armaments and Far East Invasion, thus increasing its grudge against Western countries and paving the way for the rise of militarism in Japan.
4. 法、比聯軍佔據魯爾(1923年)(或稱「魯爾事件」Ruhr Event)
A. 法、比聯軍進佔德國魯爾區的背景及原因：
《凡爾賽條約》規定德國分期償還330億美元的賠款，但由於德國於1923年未能償還賠款，法國遂聯同比利時合共10萬聯軍進佔德國魯爾Ruhr，因魯爾區有豐富的煤礦資源。
B. 法、比聯軍進佔德國魯爾區的結果：
威瑪共和政府發動消極政策抵抗，支持工人罷工、不納稅，浪潮持續約8個月。最終，美、英、法、比、意等國商討道茲計劃，由美國向德國提出貸款以協助德國經濟復甦及償還賠款。
C. 法、比聯軍進佔德國魯爾區的意義：
Ø 法國強硬的軍事行動加深了德國人對法國的不滿情緒。
Ø 威瑪共和政府為資助工人罷工而印刷更多鈔票，導致嚴重的通貨膨脹，由戰後的約4馬克Mark兌換1美元膨脹至1923年11月的4.2兆馬克兌現1美元，令德國出現經濟危機。
Ø 促成道茲計劃Dawes Plan的出現，美國向德國提供2億美元的貸款，日後楊格計劃Young Plan也接道茲計劃而推出。
Ø 危機過後，由於德國得到道茲計劃的貸款而令經濟有所改善，令威瑪共和政府有意改善與其他國家的關係。
Ø 差劣的經濟環境導致希特拉躍然欲試，於1923年10月發動「啤酒間叛變」Beer Hall Putsch。雖然事敗，但希特拉入獄後著作了《我的奮鬥》My Struggle一書，反使其聲名大噪。
4. French and Belgian Occupation of Ruhr (1923) (Ruhr Event魯爾事件)
A. Background and Reasons causing French and Belgian Occupation of Ruhr:
Granted Germany was required to pay an indemnity of USD33 billion from Treaty of Versailles, Germany could not pay the indemnity until the year 1923. France and Belgium then together initiated the invasion of Ruhr魯爾 of Germany with a joint-nation army with 100000 soldiers in view of its rich coal resources.
B. Results of French and Belgian Occupation of Ruhr:
Weimar Republic responded with passive policy and supported labour conducting strikes and not paying taxes which lasted for 8 months. United States, Britain, France, Belgium, Italy and other nations then established Dawes Plan – United States providing loans to Germany for its economic reconstruction and submission of indemnities.
C. Significance of French and Belgian Occupation of Ruhr:
Ø France’s harsh military approach intensified Germany’s dissatisfaction towards France.
Ø Weimar Republic induced severe inflation as it printed lots of banknotes to support labour strikes. Economic crisis with Inflation occurred as shown from 4 Mark馬克 being equivalent to 1 USD during post-WWI period to 4.2 Mark being equivalent to 1 USD in November 1923.
Ø This promoted the establishment of Dawes Plan道茲計劃 with United States providing a loan of USD200 million to Germany. Young Plan楊格計劃 was also established subsequent to Dawes Plan.
Ø With economic betterment after Germany receiving loans from Dawes Plan, Weimar Republic wished to improve relationships with other nations.
Ø Poor economic environment encouraged Hitler to attempt to attain political popularity through initiating the Beer Hall Putsch啤酒間叛變 in October 1923. Though he failed, Hitler got more well-known after publishing My Struggle我的奮鬥 in jail.
5. 意大利炮轟希臘科孚島(1923年)(或稱「科孚事件」Corfu Incident)
A. 意大利炮轟希臘科孚島的發生背景及原因：
墨索里尼Mussolini於1922年上台後，希望藉衝突展示其強勢的外交手段，並爭取民族光榮。因此，1923年8月，墨索里尼藉一名意大利將軍於希臘被殺為由，出兵炮轟希臘的科孚島。
B. 意大利炮轟希臘科孚島的結果：
Ø 於國聯的調停下，墨索里尼同意撤兵。
Ø 希臘取回科孚島，但則需要向意大利賠償5,000萬里拉Lira。
C. 意大利炮轟希臘科孚島的意義：
Ø 墨索里尼上台後隨即發展侵略的例子。
5. Italy bombarding Corfu Island, Greece (1923) (Corfu Incident科孚事件)
A. Background and Reasons causing Corfu Incident:
Mussolini墨索里尼 would like to portray its strong diplomatic policy through crises after he started ruling in 1922 in order to fight for national glory. Hence, Mussolini used the death of an Italian soldier in Greece as pretext to start bombardment of CorfuIsland in August 1923.
B. Results of Corfu Incident:
Ø Mussolini agreed to disarm under the mediation of League of Nations.
Ø Greece retrieved Corfu Island, yet was required to pay 50 million Lira to Italy
C. Significance of Corfu Incident:
Ø An example of Mussolini developing strong invasion plans as he rose to power.
6. 意大利取得阜姆Italy’s acquisition of Fiume (1924年)
A. 意大利取得阜姆的發生背景及原因：
意大利對阜姆Fiume早已虎視眈眈，於1915年英、法就以領土利益利誘意大利轉投協約國陣營，《倫敦條約》Treaty of London中也包括了阜姆一地。然而，戰後，由於英、法、美懼怕意大利於地中海及巴爾幹的勢力過大，故於巴黎和會中拒絕兌現有關阜姆的諾言。會後，意大利的民族主義分子鄧南遮D'Annunzio組成一支2,500人的志願軍，並於1919年9月成功攻占阜姆，但意大利不但不承認志願軍的行為，更將鄧南遮逐出阜姆，使阜姆於國際調停下成為自由市Free City。
B. 意大利取得阜姆的經過：
於墨索里尼上台後，其隨即藉阜姆境內以意大利人佔多數為由，強迫南斯拉夫Yugoslavia (當時稱為「塞爾維亞—克羅地亞—斯洛文尼亞王國」Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes進行談判，最終於1924年1月簽訂《羅馬條約》Treaty of Rome，南斯拉夫將阜姆給予意大利。
C. 意大利取得阜姆的意義：
Ø 墨索里尼上台後隨即發展侵略的例子。
6. Italy’s acquisition of Fiume意大利取得阜姆 (1924)
A. Background and Reasons causing Italy’s acquisition of Fiume:
Italy had long been greatly interested with Fiume阜姆 as it was the promised territorial interest by Britain and France that attracted Italy to join the Allies in 1915. Treaty of London倫敦條約 also included Fiume to be promised land for Italy. However, Britain, France and United States refused to let Italy acquire Fiume in Paris Peace Conference as they feared that Italy would be too strong in power in Mediterranean Sea and the Balkans. After such, Italian nationalist D’Annunzio鄧南遮 successfully led 2500 volunteering soldiers to gain control of Fiume in September 1919. Yet, Italy did not admit the acts of the volunteering army and dismissed D’Annunzio out of Fiume. Fiume then became a free city自由市 after international mediation.
B. Process of Italy’s acquisition of Fiume:
Mussolini used “the majority of population in Fiume was Italians” as pretext to fore Yugoslavia南斯拉夫 (known as Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes塞爾維亞—克羅地亞—斯洛文尼亞王國) to initiate conferences about Fiume after he rose to power. Treaty of Rome羅馬條約 was signed in January 1924 with Yugoslavia granting Fiume to Italy.
C. Significance of Italy’s acquisition of Fiume
Ø An example of Mussolini developing strong invasion plans as he rose to power.
7. 《羅加諾公約》Locarno Treaties(1925年)
A. 《羅加諾公約》的簽署背景及原因：
於一戰後，德國與西方國家的關係仍然不和，故德國外首斯特萊斯曼Gustav Stresemann為改善與鄰近國家的關係，主動建議確立《凡爾賽條約》中有關德國西邊的邊界。德、英、法、意、比五國於1925年10月召開了羅加諾會議，並邀請波蘭和捷克斯洛伐克出席，最終通過了《羅加諾公約》。《羅加諾公約》包括了《萊茵保安公約》Rhineland Pact、《仲裁條約》Arbitration Treaty及《互助條約》Treaty of Mutual Assistance。
B. 《萊茵保安公約》Rhineland Pact (德、英、法、意、比)的主要內容：
Ø 規定德國、法國和比利時的邊界必須維持現狀；
Ø 德國遵守《凡爾賽條約》有關萊茵河區非軍事的規定；
Ø 英國和意大利作為保證國，承擔援助被侵略國的義務。
C. 《仲裁條約》Arbitration Treaty (德國分別與比、法、波、捷簽訂)的主要內容：
Ø 德國與其簽署國發生領土糾紛時，應訴諸國際法庭(PCIJ)仲裁。
D. 《互助條約》Treaty of Mutual Assistance (法國分別與波蘭和捷克簽訂)的主要內容：
Ø 簽署國受到德國的攻擊時，另一國需要對被侵略國提供援助。
E. 《羅加諾公約》的意義：
Ø 反映出威瑪共和政府有意改善與其他國家的關係，令德國於1926年能夠加入國聯，並成為理事會的常任理事國。
Ø 自從此條約簽訂後，歐洲開始出現一種羅加諾精神Locarno spirit，不主張以武力去解決爭端，歐洲彌漫著一片和平的氣氛，充滿盼望，所以1920年代稱為「蜜月期」。
Ø 公約只規定了德國的西邊邊界，但則未有確保東邊邊界的穩定，尤以東邊邊界有許多新成立而缺乏經濟、軍事實力的民族小國，日後令德國更輕易向東擴張，包括於1939年入侵捷克全境Czechoslovakia及突襲波蘭Poland。
7. Locarno Treaties羅加諾公約 (1925)
A. Background and Reasons for signing Locarno Treaties:
Germany would like to mend relationships with its neighbouring countries after WWI. Thus, Germany’s foreign minister Gustav Stresemann斯特萊斯曼 actively proposed the confirmation of Germany’s western boundary as mentioned in Treaty of Versailles. Germany, Britain, France, Italy and Belgium called the Locarno Conference in October 1925 and invited Poland and Czechoslovakia to join. Locarno Treaties were established with Rhineland Pact萊茵保安公約, Arbitration Treaty仲裁條約 and Treaty of Mutual Assistance互助條約.
B. Content of Rhineland Pact萊茵保安公約 (Germany, Britain, France, Italy and Belgium):
Ø Boundaries of Germany, France and Belgium should be maintained as present.
Ø Germany should keep Rhineland demilitarized as stated in Treaty of Versailles.
Ø Britain and France were to be guarantors assisting countries which are under attack.
C. Content of Arbitration Treaty仲裁條約 (Germany with Belgium, France, Poland, Czechoslovakia):
Ø Territorial conflicts between Germany and signed nations should be solved by Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)
D. Content of Treaty of Mutual Assistance互助條約 (France with Poland and Czechoslovakia):
Ø When signed nation was under attack of Germany, another nation should be responsible for providing assistance
E. Significance of Locarno Treaties:
Ø It reflected that Weimar’s Republic wishing to mend relationships with other nations, enabling Germany to join League of Nations in 1926 to become permanent member nation of the Council
Ø Locarno Spirit羅加諾精神 started to emerge in Europe that conflicts should not be solved with military force, leading to more peaceful atmosphere in Europe filled with hopes. Thus, 1920s was considered as “honeymoon period”.
Ø Locarno Treaties only confirmed Germany’s western boundary yet not eastern. With many newly established nations without economic and military strength along Germany’s eastern boundary, Germany could easily expand eastward. For instance, Germany invaded Czechoslovakia捷克斯洛伐克 in 1939 and launched a sudden attack on Poland波蘭.
8. 阿爾巴尼亞成為意大利的保護國Albania became protectorate of Italy (1926年)
A. 阿爾巴尼亞成為意大利保護國的背景：
阿爾巴尼亞Albania的地理位置對於意大利而言，有著極重要的戰略地位，因意大利只要控制阿爾巴尼亞的夫羅勒港口Port of Vlore，便可能完全控制亞得里亞海Adriatic Sea的入口處，故意大利於一戰時已嘗試佔領阿爾巴尼亞。於墨索里尼上台後，其對阿爾巴尼亞虎視眈眈，於1925年開始積極干預阿爾巴尼亞的經濟，提供大量貸款。及後，於1926年及1927年先後簽訂兩次《地拉那條約》Treaties of Tirana，使阿爾巴尼亞成為意大利的保護國Protectorate State。
B. 《第一次地拉那條約》First Treaty of Tirana的主要內容：
Ø 不能與其他國家簽訂有損害意、阿兩國共同利益的條約。
C. 《第二次地拉那條約》Second Treaty of Tirana的主要內容：
Ø 意大利協助阿爾巴尼亞訓練軍隊；
Ø 阿爾巴尼亞准許意大利海軍進入夫羅勒港口；
D. 阿爾巴尼亞成為意大利保護國的意義：
Ø 由於意大利以經濟利誘使阿爾巴尼亞成為其保護國，並未有強硬的軍事行動，故並未有受到列強制止。
Ø 意大利於1920年代對外擴張的例子，及至1939年，意大利更進攻阿爾巴尼亞，使阿爾巴尼亞被其所吞併。
8. Albania became protectorate of Italy阿爾巴尼亞成為意大利的保護國 (1926)
A. Background of Albania becoming protectorate of Italy
Albania阿爾巴尼亞 was considered as a great military advantage to Italy with its location. When Italy was able to control Port of Vlore夫羅勒港口 of Albania, Italy could control the entrance of Adriatic Sea亞得里亞海 completely. Hence, Italy had attempted to invade Albania starting from WWI. Mussolini had great interest in gaining Albania, firstly by affecting Albania's economy by granting large loans in 1925. Treaty of Tirana地拉那條約 was signed in 1926 and 1927 making Albania as the Protectorate State保護國 of Italy.
B. Content of First Treaty of Tirana第一次地拉那條約:
Ø Signing of treaties that would harm Italo-Albanian mutual interest with other nations was prohibited
C. Content of Second Treaty of Tirana第二次地拉那條約:
Ø Italy was to assist Albania's training of army
Ø Albania was allowed Italy's navy to enter Port of Vlore.
D. Significance of Albania becoming protectorate of Italy:
Ø Italy's act was not stopped by great powers as Italy used economic interest to attract Albania to become its protectorate instead of using military power
Ø It was an example of Italy's expansion in 1920s. Italy even invaded into Albania in 1939 to become part of its nation
9. 《凱格—白里安公約》Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928年)
A. 《凱格—白里安公約》的簽署背景及原因：
《羅加諾公約》Locarno Treaties簽訂後，歐洲開始彌漫著一片和平的氣氛。此時，法國外相白里安Briand向美國國務卿凱格Kellogg建議，兩國簽訂共同協議，以譴責戰爭，提倡以和平方式解決糾紛。但由於凱格恐怕此協議會被外界視為是法國與美國的盟約，故邀請更多的國家加入。結果，各國於1928年簽訂《凱格—白里安公約》，簽署國先後合共65個。
B. 《凱格—白里安公約》的主要內容：
Ø 各國承諾會譴責以戰爭作為解決糾紛的國家，並停止國與國之間的戰爭。
C. 《凱格—白里安公約》的意義：
Ø 各國雖然簽訂了《凱格—白里安公約》，但由於一年後經濟大蕭條便出現，國際氣氛迅速因經濟問題而驟變，成效有限。
Ø 但由於大部分國家於簽字時都帶有條件限制，就是當該國受到威脅時，可以保留合法的防衛權，而「合法的防衛權」legitimate defense就成為侵略國日後侵略的藉口之一，例如希特拉以保護蘇台德區Sudetenland的日耳曼人為由，吞併蘇台德區。
Ø 此公約與《羅加諾公約》相似，並無罰則，因此簽署國可從可不從。
9. Kellogg-Briand Pact凱格—白里安條約 (1928)
A. Background and Reasons for signing Kellogg-Braind Pact:
Europe was becoming more peaceful after the signature of Locarno Treaties羅加諾公約. France's Foreign Minister Braind白里安 purposed signing of mutual agreement with United States' Secretary of State Kellogg凱格 to condemn wars and advocate peaceful approach to solve conflicts. However, Kellogg feared that the agreement would be considered as an allied agreement between the two nations. Thus, more nations were invited to sign, resulting in 65 nations signing Kellogg-Braind Pact in 1928
B. Content of Kellogg-Braind Pact:
Ø Each nation promised to condemn nations that solved conflicts by military power, and ceased wars between nations.
C. Significance of Kellogg-Braind Pact:
Ø Great Depression happened 1 year after the signature of Kellogg-Braind Pact, thus the international atmosphere greatly changed due to economic issues, which restrained effectiveness of the Pact.
Ø Signature of the Pact from most nations came with limiting conditions — when the signed nation faced attack, legitimate defense合法的防衛權 could be reserved. Legitimate defense became the pretext for countries to initiate invasions, such as Hitler using protection of Germanic people in Sudetenland蘇台德區 as pretext to invade Sudetenland.
Ø The Pact was similar to Locarno Treaties that each nation could flexibly follow or not follow as it was not followed with any punishment.
10.世界經濟大蕭條 Great Depression (1929-32年)
A. 世界經濟大蕭條的出現背景及原因：
第一次世界大戰後，美國取代英國成為全球最富裕的國家，炫耀性的消費模式成為潮流，美國國民對於經濟發展的前景充滿信心。在此環境下，美國國民大量投資到股票市場，甚至借貸投資，導致股市的上升與實際經濟增長脫節。
1929年10月，部分美國人開始拋棄股票以獲利，後來拋售者越來越多，令華爾街股市急劇下挫。短短兩星期內，已有高達300億美金於股票市場中流失，相等於美國在一戰中的總支出。結果，股票市場的崩潰導致美國各行各業的蕭條，大量銀行倒閉、工人失業。
B. 世界經濟大蕭條造成連鎖反應的原因：
由於美國於一戰期間及戰後大量借貸予歐洲各國，如對德國的道茲計劃Dawes Plan及楊格計劃Young Plan。因此，當美國國內經濟崩潰時，美國隨即向外國收回貸款，故造成連鎖反應，諸連多個受美國貸款的國家。
另外，由於經濟大蕭條出現後，各國為保護國內工業而實施貿易保護政策，設立貿易壁壘，令貿易額進一步下降，使經濟困境雪上加霜。
C. 世界經濟大蕭條造成連鎖反應的意義：
Ø 嚴重的經濟打擊，是次危機所造成的損失估計高達2,500億美元，各國失業人口眾多，如1932年時，美國有1,370萬人失業；德國有560萬人。
Ø 極權主義的興起，如希特拉的納粹主義於經濟大蕭條後獲得人民支持，於1933年上台；共產主義也於差劣的環境底下獲得廣泛低下階級的支持，如德國共產黨於1928年國會中的54席增至1932年的100席。
Ø 促使綏靖政策的出現，由於英、法需要專注恢復經濟，故對侵略行動持一姑息的態度，希望以退讓的手段以換取和平，如慕尼黑會議Munich Conference (1938)中犧牲蘇台德區Sudetenland予德國以滿足其野心。
Ø 導致集體安全體系失效，因世界經濟大蕭條一方面使英、法等民主國家衰弱，一方面驅使德、意等極權國家擴張，令集體安全體系瓦解，如日內瓦裁軍會議(1932-34)因無法達成協議而失敗告終及國聯無法阻止意大利對阿比西尼亞Abyssinia之侵佔(1935)。
Ø 美國更加孤立。美國因經濟問題而更專注於國內經濟，除了涉及自己國家利益的議題外，一律減少干預對外事務。
Ø 貿易保護政策的出現，減少了各國的合作。
10. Great Depression世界經濟大蕭條 (1929-32)
A. Background and Reasons for Great Depression:
United States replaced UK and became the most affluent nation in the world after WWI. People considered consumption as a kind of showing-off as Americans were confident with the economic development prospect. Thus, Americans invested largely in the stock market, and even borrowed loans for investments, leading to the disproportion between growth in stock market and actual economic growth.
Some Americans started to earn profits through selling off their stocks in October 1929, which was followed by large amount of Americans. Wall Street stock market drastically dropped. USD30 billion was lost in the stock market in two weeks, which was equivalent to United States' total expenditure in WWI. Drop in stock market led to depression in each field in United States, with closure of large amount of banks and large amount of jobless workers
B. Reasons of Great Depression triggering chain effects:
United States made large amount of loans to Europe during WWI and after such as Dawes Plan道茲計劃 and Young Plan楊格計劃 to Germany. Hence, when United States took back loans from other nations during Great Depression as its economic status collapsed, chain effect affected nations that received US loans.
In addition, trade protection policies with trade barriers were set up after Great Depression to protect domestic industries. Economic conditions became even worse with lowering trades
C. Significance of chain effects triggered by Great Depression:
Ø Severe economic harm: loss of USD250 billion during Great Depression, with large amount of unemployment workers (13.7 million unemployed in US and 5.6 million unemployed in 1932)
Ø Rise of totalitarianism: Hitler's Nazism gained public support after Great Depression and took rule in 1933, together with Communism gaining wide support from lower class (Germany's Communist Party's seats in Parliament: 54 in 1928 to 100 in 1932)
Ø Emergence of appeasement policy: With Britain and France concentrated themselves in economic recovery, appeasing attitude was adopted towards invasion plans, hoping to attain peace with concessions such as sacrificing Sudetenland蘇台德區 to Germany in Munich Conference慕尼黑會議(1938) to fulfill its aggression.
Ø Failure of collective security system: Great Depression had both weakened democratic nations such as Britain and France, as well as induced expansion from totalitarian states such as Italy and Germany, leading to the failure of collective security system (e.g. failure of Geneva Disarmament Conference (1932-34) and League of Nations' failure in stopping Italy's invasion in Abyssinia阿比西尼亞(1935).
Ø Isolation of United States: United States had to focus on domestic economy due to Great Depression, thus reducing participation in international affairs unless they are related to its own interests.
Ø Trade protection policies: reducing cooperation amongst different nations
11.倫敦海軍會議London Naval Conference(1930年)
A. 倫敦海軍會議的召開背景及原因：
華盛頓會議只規定列強主力艦Battleship與航空母艦Aircraft Carrier的噸位，因此各國希望將海軍的限制進一步擴展至巡洋艦Cruiser以下輔助艦的比例，故於1930年1月召開了倫敦海軍會議。雖然會議出席國有美、英、日、法、意，但法國與意大利拒絕裁減協議，未有簽訂《倫敦海軍條約》London Naval Treaty。
B. 《倫敦海軍條約》的主要內容：
Ø 將停止建造3.5萬噸位以上的主力艦Battleship的時限延長至1936年；
Ø 小型巡洋艦Small Cruiser和驅逐艦Destroyer比例為10(美)：10(英)：7(日)；
Ø 大型巡洋艦Large Cruiser比例為5(美)：5(英)：3(日)；
Ø 附加條文：簽署國以外任何一國擴軍，簽署國也可擴展其軍備。
C. 倫敦海軍會議的意義：
Ø 條約缺乏罰則，簽署國可從可不從，成效不大。
Ø 附加條文令簽署國可以其他國家擴張海軍為由，打破條約中的軍事限制。
Ø 條約只針對海軍，對陸軍及空軍則隻字不提。
11. London Naval Conference倫敦海軍會議 (1930)
A. Background and Reasons for calling London Naval Conference
Washington Conference only restricted tonnages of battleship主力艦 and aircraft carriers航空母艦. Different nations would like to extend the restriction in limiting ratio of assistant cruisers under small cruisers. London Naval Conference was held in January 1930. United States, Britain, Japan, France and Italy participated in the Conference, yet France and Italy refused to sign London Naval Treaty倫敦海軍條約.
B. Content of London Naval Treaty:
Ø Extending the prohibition of building battleship主力艦 with 35,000 or above tonnage to 1936;
Ø Ratio of small cruisers小型巡洋艦 and destroyers驅逐艦: 10 (United States) : 10 (Britain) : 7 (Japan)
Ø Ratio of large cruisers大型巡洋艦: 5 (United States) : 5 (Britain) : 3 (Japan)
Ø Additional condition: When a non-signed nation initiated military expansion, signed nations could start its military expansion as well
C. Significance of London Naval Treaty:
Ø Treaty lacked punishment, resulting in low effectiveness as countries could flexibly choose to follow or not.
Ø Additional condition enabled signed nations to use "a non-signed nation initiated military expansion" as pretext to disregard Treaty's restriction.
Ø Treaty only focused on navy, yet not air and land forces.
12.「九一八事變」September 18th Incident (1931年)
A. 「九一八事變」的發生背景及原因：
1931年9月18日，駐東北的日軍以中國軍隊炸毀日本修築的南滿鐵路South Manchuria Railway為藉口，向中國軍隊開火，最終佔領了瀋陽Shenyang。
B. 「九一八事變」的意義：
Ø 反映出國聯的無能。因國聯經過調查後指責日本的行動是侵略行為，要求日軍撤出中國，但日本無視國聯的譴責，並於1937年全面入侵中國。
Ø 「九一八事變」後，日本繼續加強於中國的進一步侵略，故導致了1932年的「一二八事變」出現。
Ø 「九一八事變」使日蘇關係惡化，因於兩次事件中，蘇聯均不滿日本的侵略，中國東北的利益衝突成為兩國關係惡化的催化劑。
12. September 18th Incident九一八事變 (1931)
A. Background and Reasons of September 18 Incident:
Japanese army stationing in Manchuria used "Chinese army destroyed South Manchuria Railway南滿鐵路 constructed by Japan" as pretext to fire with Chinese army on 18th September 1931. Japan eventually invaded Shenyang瀋陽.
B. Significance of September 18 Incident:
Ø Reflected the failure of League of Nations: though League of Nations pointed out that Japanese act was considered as invasion after investigation and required Japan to leave China, Japan ignored League of Nations and even initiated full invasion in China in 1937.
Ø Japan intensified its invasion in China after September 18 Incident, leading to January 28th Incident in 1932.
Ø Japanese-Soviet relationship was worsened after September 18 Incident as Soviet Union was dissatisfied with Japanese invasion, making Manchuria's interest being catalyst towards the worsening relationship.
13.「一二八事變」January 28th Incident (1932年)
A. 「一二八事變」的發生背景及結果：
「九一八事變」後，日本繼續加強於中國的進一步侵略，故於1932年1月28日，以保護日本華僑為藉口，進攻上海及附近的地區。中國軍隊奮勇抗戰，直至5月5日，經國聯及美國的調停下，中日雙方簽訂了《上海停戰協定》Shanghai Ceasefire Agreement，日本答應無條件撤軍，事件才得到平息。
B. 「一二八事變」的意義：
Ø 「一二八事變」後，中國軍隊奮勇抗戰令日軍的進攻受挫，故日軍於中國的軍事行動有暫時性的緩和。
Ø 國聯於「一二八事變」上使日本感到有一定的壓力，原因在於列強於上海擁有龐大的利益，如英國及法國在華的資本分別有80%及90%在上海地區，為保護其利益，有必要阻止日本對上海的侵略。
Ø 日本認為國聯有礙其侵略計劃的進行，故於1933年退出國聯。
Ø 「一二八事變」使日蘇關係惡化，因於兩次事件中，蘇聯均不滿日本的侵略，中國東北的利益衝突成為兩國關係惡化的催化劑。
13. January 28th Incident一二八事變 (1932)
A. Background and Results of January 28th Incident:
Japan intensified its invasion in China after September 18 Incident. Japan used "protecting Japanese in China" as pretext to invade Shanghai and nearby areas on 28th January 1932. Shanghai Ceasefire Agreement上海停戰協定 was signed between China and Japan under the mediation of United States and League of Nations on 5th May. Japan agreed to evacuate without any condition.
B. Significance of January 28th Incident
Ø Japanese invasion in China was somehow hindered by the resistance of Chinese army, making its invasion become slightly milder.
Ø League of Nations pressurized Japan in January 28th Incident as great powers had strong interest in Shanghai (80% of the capital invested in China by Britain was in Shanghai). It was necessary for the League to put a halt to Japanese invasion in Shanghai.
Ø Japan withdrew from the League in 1933 as it perceived the League as impeding its invasion plan.
Ø Japanese-Soviet relationship was worsened after January 28th Incident as Soviet Union was dissatisfied with Japanese invasion, making Manchuria's interest being catalyst towards the worsening relationship.
14.日內瓦裁軍會議Geneva Disarmament Conference(1932-34)
A. 日內瓦裁軍會議召開的背景及原因：
軍備競賽一方面為各國帶來了沉重的經濟壓力，同時也惡化了國際氣氛。於此環境下，國聯於1932年2月召開了一次普遍性的裁軍會議，裁軍的範疇不單單著重於過往的海軍，更包括陸軍及空軍等。此次會議共有61個國家參與，會議由英、法、美等大國所主持。
B. 日內瓦裁軍會議召開的結果：
會議以失敗告終，德國於會議中途(1933)退出，反使各國恐懼德國死灰復燃，更加積極備戰，最終造成反效果。
C. 日內瓦裁軍會議失敗的原因：
Ø 法、德對於軍備上的裁減問題成為會議上的主要爭議，因法國認為沒有足夠的安全保證便絕不裁軍，但同時，德國認為其於《凡爾賽條約》Treaty of Versailles中已大幅裁減軍備，故為達致平等，其他國家也應裁軍，否則應准許德國重新武裝。德、法雙方的猜忌使會議無法達成協議，會議更一度中斷。
Ø 希特拉於1933年3月上台後，反對德國裁減軍備，更憤然退出會議，終使各國恐懼德國死灰復燃，而放棄裁減軍備的念頭。
D. 日內瓦裁軍會議的意義：
Ø 雖然會議未能達到預期的效用，但對比其過往的裁軍會議，這是一次普遍性及大規模的裁軍會議。
Ø 因無法就裁軍達成協議，反使各國加劇擴軍，以防止別國侵略。
Ø 日內瓦裁軍會議後，列強對於裁軍會議已失去信心，於1939年第二次世界大戰爆發前，列強並未有再為裁軍而舉行大規模的會議。
14. Geneva Disarmament Conference日內瓦裁軍會議 (1932-34)
A. Background and Reasons for calling Geneva Disarmament Conference:
Armaments race brought great economic pressure to each nation and worsened international atmosphere. League of Nations called for Geneva Disarmament Conference in February 1932. The coverage of the Conference included navy, air and land forces. 61 countries participated, and was hosted by large countries such as United States, Britain and France.
B. Results of Geneva Disarmament Conference:
The Conference was a failure. With the withdrawal of Germany in 1933, the fear of each nation towards the re-emerging Germany was intensified and made them more actively initiate military preparation
C. Reasons for the failure of Geneva Disarmament Conference:
Ø Major dispute fell in the disarmament issues of Germany and France. France would not disarm unless there was absolute guarantee of security. At the same time, Germany had already greatly disarmed in accordance to Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約, thus equality should be achieved by requiring disarmament of other nations, or else Germany's re-armament should be permitted. Consensus could not be achieved and the Conference was even forced to stop for a period.
Ø After Hitler rose to power in March 1933, he greatly resisted Germany’s plan of disarmament and even decided to withdraw from the Conference. Different nations feared that Germany was back on its pathway for aggressions, thus also abandoned the determination in disarmament.
D. Significance of Geneva Disarmament Conference:
Ø Though the Conference could not achieve the anticipated results, it was a large-scale disarmament conference with greater coverage when compared to previous ones.
Ø Consensus could not be attained, and even led to intensive military expansion by many nations to prevent being invaded.
Ø Great Powers lost confidence towards disarmament conferences, thus there was absence of disarmament conference before the outbreak of WWII in 1939.
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