1. 希臘內戰Greek Civil War (1944-49年)
A. 希臘內戰的發生背景及原因：
於第二次世界大戰末期，蘇軍已於東線擊退德軍，德軍節節敗退。此時，共產主義陣營的希臘民主軍Democratic Army勢力大增，與受英、美等資本主義國家支持的希臘政府軍Government Army發生衝突，導致了希臘內戰的開始。
B. 希臘內戰的內容：
原本民主軍繳獲了德軍留下的武器，屬於佔優的一方。但內戰隨著英、美等國家對政府軍的支持而扭轉劣勢。結果，內戰最終因希臘民主軍的敗北而告終。
C. 希臘內戰的意義：
Ø 政府軍於內戰中戰勝了共產陣營的民主軍，使希臘成為唯一一個並未有受到赤化及接受美國馬歇爾計劃Marshall Plan的東歐國家，也成為了美國在巴爾幹半島上對抗蘇聯的重要盟國之一。
Ø 由於蘇聯早於二次大戰期間與英國首相邱吉爾Churchill達成私下協定，希臘歸英、美陣營；羅馬尼亞、保加利亞等國則歸蘇聯勢力。因此，蘇聯對於希臘的援助較為有限。此次內戰可見蘇聯對於援助共產主義的勢力也所有約束。
1. Greek Civil War希臘內戰 (1944-49)
A. Background and Reasons for the outbreak of Greek Civil War:
At the end of WWII, Germany was greatly defeated by Soviet Union on the Eastern Front. At the same time, the communist Greek Democratic Army民主軍 increased its strength at that time and had conflicts with Greek Government Army政府軍 that was supported by Britain and United States. This signified the beginning of Greek Civil War.
B. Content of Greek Civil War:
Initially Greek Democratic Army was more successful in war as they were granted the German left-over weapons. Yet, Greek Government Army gained advantage as they were supported by Britain and United States. The defeat of Greek Democratic Army marked the end of Greek Civil War.
C. Significance of Greek Civil War:
Ø Greek Government Army defeated the communist Greek Democratic Army, causing Greece to become the only non-Communist nation in Eastern Europe adopting Marshall Plan馬歇爾計劃. Greece became the major ally of United States in confrontation of Soviet Union in the Balkans.
Ø Churchill邱吉爾 had made a private agreement with Soviet Union during WWII that Greece should belong to the camp of Britain and United States, while Romania and Bulgaria should belong to the camp of Soviet Union. Hence, Soviet Union only offered limited assistance to Greece, showing that Soviet Union had its own restrictions in assisting rise of Communism
2. 中國國共內戰Chinese Civil War (1946-49年)
A. 中國國共內戰的爆發背景及原因：
於1945年8月15日日本宣佈無條件投降後，中國國民黨Kuomintang與共產黨邊打邊談，同時進行談判及武裝衝突，及至1946年6月，國共內戰全面爆發。
B. 中國國共內戰的結果：
西方國家及蘇聯介入中國內戰，分別支持資本主義陣營的國民黨及共產主義陣營的共產黨。最終，共產黨於1949年取得勝利，國民黨撤退到台灣。
C. 中國國共內戰的意義：
Ø 中國共產黨成功奪得政權同時標誌了蘇聯成為此次衝突中勝利的一方。
Ø 直至1953年史太林去世前，中國與蘇聯保持了友好的關係，如中蘇兩國於1950年簽訂《友好同盟互助條約》Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance，蘇聯為中國提供經濟及軍事上的援助。
Ø 美國擔心共產主義勢力會於亞洲迅速擴散，故於日後積極援助南韓，同時大力復甦日本經濟及保護退守台灣的國民黨，以圍堵共產主義於亞洲的勢力。
Ø 美國積極援助國民黨，使之日後未能與新中國建立正常外交關係。
2. Chinese Civil War中國國共內戰(1946-49)
A. Background and Reasons for the outbreak of Chinese Civil War:
Kuomintang國民黨 started both negotiations and military conflicts with Communist Party after Japan's surrender in August 1945. Chinese Civil War broke out in June 1946.
B. Results of Chinese Civil War:
Western nations and Soviet Union involved in Chinese Civil War, with the Capitalist camp supporting Kuomintang and Communist camp supporting Communist Party. Communist Party won the war in 1949, with Kuomintang retreating to Taiwan.
C. Significance of Chinese Civil War:
Ø Communist Party succeeded in gaining sovereignty, signifying Soviet Union's success during the crisis.
Ø China maintained friendly relationship with Soviet Union before the death of Stalin in 1953 as seen from the signature of Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance《友好同盟互助條約》 (1950) that Soviet Union promised to offer military and economic assistance to China.
Ø United States feared the expansion of Communism in Asia, so that it actively supported South Korea, strengthened Japan's economy and protected the retreated Kuomintang in order to resist power expansion of Communism in Asia.
Ø United States actively assisted Kuomintang, thus it was unable to build normal diplomatic relationship with China.
3. 鐵幕演說Iron Curtain Speech (1946年)
A. 鐵幕演說的出現背景及原因：
於1946年2月，史太林Stalin於莫斯科電台中直指第二次世界大戰是因壟斷的資本主義制度發展下的必然結果，反映蘇聯與西方的關係已回復到戰前的不友好狀態。同年3月，邱吉爾Churchill於美國進行演講時便予以還擊，發表了著名的「鐵幕演說」。
B. 鐵幕演說的內容：
Ø 邱吉爾於鐵幕演說中用「鐵幕」Iron Curtain一詞指蘇聯設立屏障阻隔了東、西歐之間的通訊及接觸。
Ø 此外，邱吉爾要求超級強國美國擔起重任，以圍堵蘇聯的擴張。
C. 鐵幕演說的意義：
Ø 鐵幕演說拉開了冷戰的序幕，因邱吉爾的演說中指出英、美兩國應合力阻止蘇聯勢力的擴張，公開表示了蘇聯與英、法之間的不和、猜忌，變相拉開了冷戰的序幕。
Ø 英國對美國的要求，使美國更積極地抗衡蘇聯的勢力。於希臘內戰時，美國總統杜魯門Truman便要求國會撥款援助希臘及土耳其，史稱「杜魯門主義」Truman Doctrine。
3. Iron Curtain Speech鐵幕演說 (1946)
A. Background and Reasons for giving Iron Curtain Speech:
Stalin史太林 pointed out that WWII was a result of the development of monopolized Capitalism in February 1946. This reflected that Soviet Union returned to the time when it had unfriendly relationship with Western countries. Churchill邱吉爾 made its rebuttal against Soviet Union during its speech in United States in March 1946, which was known as the renowned "Iron Curtain Speech".
B. Content of Iron Curtain Speech:
Ø "Iron Curtain"「鐵幕」 mentioned in Iron Curtain Speech meant that Soviet Union had built a barrier in blocking interaction and communication with East and West Europe.
Ø Churchill requested United States to take the responsibility in stopping Soviet Union's expansion.
C. Significance of Iron Curtain Speech:
Ø Iron Curtain Speech signified the beginning of Cold War as Churchill pointed out Britain and United States should be responsible in stopping expansion of Soviet Union which was an official declaration of unfriendliness and vigilance between Soviet Union and Britain & France.
Ø United States became more active in resisting expansion of Soviet Union after Britain’s request, as President Truman杜魯門 requested funding for Turkey and Greece in the Congress (known as Truman Doctrine「杜魯門主義」).
4. 杜魯門主義Truman Doctrine (1947年)
A. 杜魯門主義的出現背景及原因：
由於英國因國內經濟困難而無力繼續支援希臘內戰中的政府軍，因此早於1946年邱吉爾的鐵幕演說中已經要求美國擔起重任，援助資本主義陣營。於是，美國總統於1947年3月於國會中發表國情諮文State of the Union address時，清楚表達了其認為美國需要擔當「世界警察」Global Sheriff，以遏止共產主義的擴張，史稱「杜魯門主義」。
B. 杜魯門主義的內容：
杜魯門要求國會撥款4億美元及派出軍事專家支援希臘和土耳其對抗蘇聯。
C. 杜魯門主義的意義：
Ø 標誌了美國對蘇聯的態度由消極遏制走向積極遏制，除了於經濟上提供經濟計劃援助其他國家外，如1948年的馬歇爾計劃Marshall Plan。軍事上也積極擴張，如核武備於1948年由13枚增至50多枚。
Ø 於1949年，希臘政府軍於美國的援助下取得了勝利。
4. Truman Doctrine杜魯門主義 (1947)
A. Background and Reasons for giving Truman Doctrine:
Britain was unable to assist Greek Government Army due to its economic crisis. Churchill requested United States to take up the role in assisting the Capitalist Camp in its Iron Curtain Speech. United States expressed its need to become Global Sheriff「世界警察」 to stop the expansion of Communism in State of the Union Address國情諮文 in March 1947, which was known as Truman Doctrine.
B. Content of Truman Doctrine:
President Truman required the Congress to approve a fund of USD4 million and military experts in assisting Turkey and Greece against Soviet Union.
C. Significance of Truman Doctrine:
Ø It signified United States' active attitude in resisting Soviet Union's expansion, which can be seen from the economic assistance and Marshall Plan馬歇爾計劃 (1948), as well as military expansion with increase of nuclear weapons from 13 in 1948 to more than 50 sets.
Ø Greek Government Army succeeded under United States' assistance in 1949.
5. 馬歇爾計劃Marshall Plan (1947-51年)
A. 馬歇爾計劃的出現背景及原因：
「杜魯門主義」Truman Doctrine後，美國更積極地開展對歐洲國家的經濟援助，以對抗共產主義的擴張。早於1947年6月，美國便已提出了馬歇爾計劃，並與歐洲國家作出討論。最終，美國國會於1948年4月通過《對外援助法》Foreign Assistance Act，批出援助。
B. 馬歇爾計劃的主要內容：
Ø 美國提供130億美元的經濟援助予歐洲國家；
C. 馬歇爾計劃的意義：
Ø 美、英於1947年曾邀請蘇聯及東歐國家參加馬歇爾計劃，但史太林對英、法的舉動感到懷疑，故拒絕。由此可反映蘇聯對英、美存有猜疑。
Ø 蘇聯禁止東歐國家參加馬歇爾計劃，並提出另一經濟計劃「莫洛托夫計劃」Molotov Plan。
Ø 蘇聯於1947年10月成立「共產國際情報局」Communist Information Bureau (Cominform)，加強對東歐國家的控制。
Ø 計劃反映了美國利用經濟手段以利誘東歐國家，並且於經濟上與蘇聯對立。
Ø 美國為歐洲資本主義國家提供援助，而各國於重建經濟的過程中也加強了合作，故馬歇爾計劃增加了資本主義陣營內的凝聚力。
Ø 為了有效分配馬歇爾計劃的經濟援助，歐洲國家組成了歐洲經濟合作組織Organization for European Economic Cooperation (1948)，成為歐洲經濟統合的開端。
5. Marshall Plan馬歇爾計劃 (1947-51)
A. Background and Reasons for initiating Marshall Plan:
United States initiated its active economic assistance to European nations after Truman Doctrine「杜魯門主義」 in resisting expansion of Communism. United States drafted Marshall Plan in June 1947 to make discussion with European nations. The Congress of United States passed Foreign Assistance Act《對外援助法》 in April 1948.
B. Main Content of Marshall Plan:
Ø United States provided USD13 billion economic assistance to European nations.
C. Significance of Marshall Plan:
Ø United States and Britain had once invited Soviet Union and Eastern European nations to join the Marshall Plan, yet Stalin doubted such act and rejected, indicating Soviet Union's vigilance over Britain and United States.
Ø Soviet Union prohibited Eastern European nations to join the Plan and drafted Molotov Plan莫洛托夫計劃.
Ø Soviet Union established Communist Information Bureau「共產國際情報局」 (Cominform) in October 1947 to intensify control over Eastern European nations.
Ø Marshall Plan reflected United States' economic approach in attracting Eastern European nations and stood in confrontation with Soviet Union economically.
Ø United States provided assistance to capitalist European nations, enhancing cooperation during economic reconstruction, indicating that Marshall Plan increased cohesion amongst Capitalist camp.
Ø European nations established Organization for European Economic Cooperation歐洲經濟合作組織 (1948) to effectively divide the economic assistance by Marshall Plan, which was a beginning of economic cooperation.
6. 莫洛托夫計劃Molotov Plan及經濟互助委員會The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (1947-49年)
A. 莫洛托夫計劃Molotov Plan的出現背景及原因：
當馬歇爾計劃於1947年進入討論階段的時候，蘇聯為了避免東歐的國家對蘇聯的統治出現離心力，故由蘇聯外交部長莫洛托夫Molotov出面，於1947年7-8月期間和保加利亞Bulgaria、匈牙利Hungary、阿爾巴尼亞Albania、波蘭Poland、南斯拉夫Yugoslavia及羅馬尼亞Romania簽訂貿易協定。莫洛托夫為了抗衡馬歇爾計劃而與東歐國家簽訂的一連串貿易和經濟協定，就稱為「莫洛托夫計劃」。
B. 莫洛托夫計劃的其中內容：
Ø 與保加利亞的貿易協定：向保加利亞提供500萬美元的商品貸款；
Ø 與阿爾巴尼亞的經濟協定：向阿爾巴尼亞提供600萬美元的貸款。
C. 莫洛托夫計劃的意義：
Ø 經濟上與馬歇爾計劃抗衡，避免東歐國家對蘇聯的統治出現離心。
Ø 事實上，莫洛托夫計劃的效用遠不及馬歇爾計劃，使東歐國家持續衰弱。
Ø 1949年成立的經濟互助委員The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA/Comecon)承接莫洛托莫計劃。
6. Molotov Plan莫洛托夫計劃 & The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance經濟互助委員會 (1947-49)
A. Background and Reasons for issuing Molotov Plan:
Soviet Union was aware of the possible consequence of Marshall Plan in 1947. Soviet Union's Foreign Minister Molotov莫洛托夫 then signed trade agreements with Bulgaria保加利亞, Hungary匈牙利, Albania阿爾巴尼亞, Poland波蘭, Yugoslavia南斯拉夫 and Romania羅馬尼亞 in July to August 1947 to prevent Eastern European nations' deviation from Soviet Union. Molotov's signature of trade and economic agreements served to counteract Marshall Plan, which was known as "Molotov Plan".
B. Parts of Content of Molotov Plan:
Ø Trading agreement with Bulgaria: providing commodity loan of USD5 million.
Ø Trading agreement with Albania: providing loan of USD6 million.
C. Significance of Molotov Plan:
Ø It stayed in confrontation with Marshall Plan economically, preventing deviation of Eastern European nations away from rule of Soviet Union.
Ø It had lower effectiveness when compared with Marshall Plan, keeping Eastern European nations weak at all times.
Ø The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance經濟互助委員(CMEA/Comecon) (1949) continued the adoption of Molotov Plan.
7. 布魯塞爾條約Treaty of Brussels (1948年)
A. 簽訂《布魯塞爾條約》的背景及原因：
早於1947年英、法兩國已簽訂《敦克爾克條約》Treaty of Dunkirk，防止德國再次發動戰爭。及後，隨著蘇聯的勢力不斷擴張，西歐國家有必要建立更緊密的盟友關係，以對抗蘇聯。因此，於1948年3月，在美國的支持下，英、法、比、盧、荷簽訂了《布魯塞爾條約》。
B. 《布魯塞爾條約》的內容：
Ø 任何一個締約國若受到其他國家的攻擊，其他簽署國需要援助；
Ø 條約有效期為50年。
C. 簽訂《布魯塞爾條約》的意義：
Ø 條約雖然表面上針對德國，防止德國報復，但實質指向蘇聯，以防禦性的條約方式防範蘇聯。
Ø 及後，美國國會通過「范登堡議案」Vandenberg resolution，同意美國與西歐國家組成軍事同盟，故《布魯塞爾條約》和「范登堡議案」是北大西洋公約組織的基礎。
7. Treaty of Brussels布魯塞爾條約(1948)
A. Background and Reasons for signing Treaty of Brussels:
Treaty of Dunkirk《敦克爾克條約》 was signed between Britain and France in 1947 to prevent Germany to initiate wars. Yet, with the continuing expansion of Soviet Union, Western European nations thought that a closer allying relationship should be attained. Britain, France, Belgium, Luxemburg and Netherlands signed Treaty of Brussels (1948) under the support of United States.
B. Content of Treaty of Brussels:
Ø When a signed nation was attacked by another nation, other signed nation(s) was required to provide assistance.
Ø The effective period lasted for 50 years.
C. Significance of Treaty of Brussels:
Ø The Treaty seemingly pointed at Germany to prevent its revenge, yet it pointed directly at Soviet Union to restrain its expansion with defensive conditions.
Ø Vandenberg Resolution「范登堡議案」 was passed in United States Congress, allowing the formation of military alliance between United States and Western European nations. The basis of NATO was set with Treaty of Brussels and Vandenberg Resolution.
8. 柏林危機Berlin Crisis (1948-49年)
A. 柏林危機的出現背景及原因：
德國於第二次世界大戰後被分為四個區域，被美、法、英、蘇四個國家分別佔領。原本柏林屬於蘇聯的管轄範圍，但由於柏林是德國的首都，故柏林被分為四個區域，分別被四國分治。早於1946年，英、美的佔領區已經合併。至1948年2-6月，英、法、美、比、荷、盧六國舉行的倫敦會議London Conference中，建議將英、法、美佔領的地區合併，並共同制定新的憲法及推出新的貨幣。
蘇聯獲悉英、法、美的計劃後認為會危害其對德國佔領區的控制及經濟穩定，故表示強烈反對，但英、法、美則無視蘇聯的意見。因此，蘇聯以保護其佔領區為由，封鎖柏林四周的交通，切斷了英、法、美對其管轄區的控制。同時，蘇聯又於東德及東柏林推行新的貨幣改革，使西柏林陷於全面孤立。
英、法、美等國對蘇聯的舉動提出譴責。此外，美國一方面派大量飛機通過三條「空中走廊」air corridor為西柏林的居民提供日常用品的物資補給。同時，實行反封鎖政策對抗蘇聯，對蘇的佔領區實行鋼、煤及電力的反封鎖。
B. 柏林危機的結果：
由於蘇聯考慮到封鎖柏林不能夠阻止美、英、法三國合併西德，加上美、英、法等國於1949年4月成立了北約North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)此一軍事組織，故軟化了蘇聯的立場，於同年5月撤銷封鎖，使危機告終。
C. 柏林危機的意義：
Ø 冷戰開始後，美、英、法與蘇聯首次的正面衝突。
Ø 柏林危機結束後，西德及東德分別於同年的9月及10月建立，使德國一分為二，直至1990年。
8. Berlin Crisis柏林危機(1948-49)
A. Background and Reasons for causing Berlin Crisis:
Germany was divided into four districts after WWII which were occupied by United States, Soviet Union, France and Britain. Berlin was in the occupation zone of Soviet Union, yet as Berlin was the Capital, it was also divided into four districts to be ruled by four countries. Occupation zones of Britain and United States in Berlin were united in 1946. London Conference倫敦會議 (1948) (participated by Britain, France, United States, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg) suggested the union of occupation zones of United States, Britain and France, with the establishment of new constitution and currency.
Soviet Union strongly rejected as it feared that such plan would affect its control and economic stability on its occupation zone. However, Britain, France and United States ignored Soviet Union's opposition. Soviet Union used "protecting its own occupation zone" as pretext to block transport of Berlin, making Britain, France and United States unable to control their own occupation zones. Soviet Union individually conducted currency reforms in Eastern Germany and Eastern Berlin, isolating Western Germany on the whole.
Soviet Union's act was condemned by United States, Britain and France. In addition, United States provided necessities to citizens of Western Berlin through three air corridors空中走廊, as well as adopting blockage of coal, steel and electricity in Soviet Union's zone
B. Results of Berlin Crisis:
Soviet Union realized that blocking Berlin could not stop union of Western Germany. In addition, North Atlantic Treaty Organization北約(NATO) was established as a military organization in April 1949. This then made Soviet Union's stance milder. Soviet Union stopped its blockage and marked the end of the crisis.
C. Significance of Berlin Crisis:
Ø First direct confrontation between Soviet Union and Britain, France & United
States after the beginning of Cold War.
Ø Western and Eastern Germany were established in September and October after
Berlin Crisis in 1949 until 1990.
9. 北約North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)的成立(1949年)
A. 北約的成立背景及原因：
「北約」全名為「北大西洋公約組織」，成立於1949年4月。由於柏林危機時，英、美、法等國與蘇聯的關係極為惡劣，故英、美、法等十二個北大西洋附近的資本主義國家簽署了《北大西洋公約》North Atlantic Treaty，以防守性的軍事同盟捍衛北大西洋的安全。
B. 北約的主要條款：
Ø 當任何一締約國受到攻擊時，其他締約國應作出軍事上的支援。
C. 北約的意義：
Ø 短期而言，軟化了蘇聯於柏林危機中的立場，有助化解柏林危機。
Ø 長期而言，導致了以蘇聯為首的華沙公約組織成立，因西德於1955年加入北約時，蘇聯隨即成立華沙公約組織Warsaw Treaty Organization，以抗衡北約。
9. Establishment of North Atlantic Treaty Organization北約(NATO) (1949)
A. Background and Reasons for establishing NATO:
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was established in April 1949. The relationship between Soviet Union and Britain, France & United States was so poor during Berlin Crisis that 12 capitalist nations signed North Atlantic Treaty《北大西洋公約》 to safeguard safety of North Atlantic Ocean with defensive military.
B. Major condition of NATO:
Ø When a signed nation was under attack, another signed nations should provide military assistance.
C. Significance of NATO:
Ø Short-term Impact: It made Soviet Union's stance in Berlin Crisis milder, and helped resolving Berlin Crisis.
Ø Long-term Impact: It induced establishment of Warsaw Treaty Organization華沙公約組織 (headed by Soviet Union) as when Western Germany joined NATO in 1955, Soviet Union used the Organization in confrontation with NATO.
10. 蘇聯試爆原子彈Soviet atomic bomb test (1949年)
A. 蘇聯試爆原子彈背景及原因：
早於1930年代，蘇聯已建立核子研究中心，開始研製核武。及至美國於第二次世界大戰中投下了兩枚原子彈Atomic bomb，使蘇聯加緊研發原子彈。終於，1949年初，蘇聯成功研製出原子彈，並於同年的8月成功試爆綽號為「南瓜」(RDS-1)的原子彈。
B. 蘇聯試爆原子彈的意義：
Ø 蘇聯成為第二個擁有核武的國家，開展了美、蘇之間的核軍備競賽。
Ø 蘇聯擁有核武打破了美國過往的壟斷，締造了勢力均衡的局面。
10. Soviet Union testing atomic bomb蘇聯試爆原子彈 (1949)
A. Background and Reasons for Soviet Union testing atomic bomb:
Soviet Union had established centre for nucleon investigation in 1930s for the development of nuclear weapons. Soviet Union increased its speed in developing atomic bomb after United States dropped two atomic bombs原子彈 in WWII. Soviet Union successfully invented atomic bombs in 1949 named RDS-1南瓜 in August.
B. Significance of chain effects triggered by Great Depression:
Ø Soviet Union became the 2nd nation possessing nuclear weapons, and marked the beginning of US-USSR armaments race.
Ø Balance of power was achieved as United States no longer monopolized in military strength.
11. 韓戰Korean War (1950-53年)
A. 韓戰的發生背景及原因：
於第二次世界大戰後，美國及蘇聯曾經達成協議，美國負責佔領南部地區(南韓)；蘇聯負責佔領北部地區(北韓)。於美、蘇的協助下，南、北韓分別建立了資本主義及共產主義的政府。因此，南、北韓的政府已經出現了明顯的意識形態分歧。到了1940年代末，南、北韓問題進一步惡化，北韓於1950年6月突襲南韓，掀起了韓戰的序幕。
B. 韓戰的經過及結果：
韓戰爆發後，美、蘇兩大國均盡量避免牽涉入戰局，因美、蘇均恐懼兩國的對戰會導致第三次世界大戰。所以，兩國分別利用不同的方式以影響戰局，如蘇聯向中國施壓，要求中國派解放軍協助北韓；美國則透過聯合國的決議而出兵援助南韓。
由於並無一方能夠取得勝利，最終於1953年7月，南、北韓簽訂《朝鮮停戰協定》Korean Armistice Agreement，以北緯38度為邊界的劃分。
C. 韓戰的意義：
Ø 蘇聯一方面提出停戰建議，同時則秘密介入戰爭，派遣多達300架戰機協助北韓。
Ø 美國未能於戰爭中成功打敗共產主義的北韓，使其日後採取更強硬的手段。
11. Korean War韓戰 (1950-53)
A. Background and Reasons for the outbreak of Korean War:
United States and Soviet Union reached agreement after WWII that United States would occupy South Korea while Soviet Union would occupy North Korea. South and North Korea established Capitalist and Communist governments respectively under the guidance of US and USSR. Hence, there was obvious ideological difference between North and South Korea. North-South Korea conflicts was intensified in late 1940s, with the beginning of Korea War after North Korea assaulting South Korea in June 1950.
B. Process and Results of Korean War:
United States and Soviet Union prevented themselves from being involved in the war as they feared their confrontation would lead to Third World War. Hence, the two nations affected the war with various approaches, such as Soviet Union exerting pressure to China to request PLA's assistance for North Korea and United States sending troops to assist South Korea under UN's decision. Korean Armistice Agreement《朝鮮停戰協定》 was signed in July 1953 as neither side could attain success, dividing the two nations on 38th Parallel.
C. Significance of Korean War:
Ø Soviet Union suggested to stop Korean War unilaterally, while at the same time secretly got involved in war with a fleet of more than 300 carriers to support North Korea.
Ø United States failed to successfully defeat the Communist North Korea, thus encouraged United States to take harsher approach.
12. 美國成功研製氫氣彈hydrogen bomb (1952年)
A. 美國研製氫氣彈的背景及原因：
蘇聯於1949年成功試爆原子彈令美國大為震驚。為了保持美國於核武上的實力優勢，美國積極研製另一核武—「氫氣彈」，美國於1951年已經開始試爆，但以1952年試爆的氫氣彈(綽號「麥克」Ivy Mike)為真正的成功。
B. 美國成功研製氫氣彈的的意義：
Ø 將核武的競賽帶到另一層面，蘇聯於1953年8月也宣佈試爆成功。
12. United States invention of hydrogen bomb氫氣彈 (1952)
A. Background and Reasons of US invention of hydrogen bomb:
United States wished to maintain its military superiority by inventing hydrogen bomb (another nuclear weapon) after Soviet Union's testing of atomic bomb in 1949. United States started testing of hydrogen bomb in 1951, and attained success in 1952 with Ivy Mike麥克.
B. Significance of US invention of hydrogen bomb:
Ø It elevated armaments race to a new extent. Soviet Union also succeeded in testing of hydrogen bomb in August 1953.
13. 華沙公約組織Warsaw Treaty Organization的成立(1955年)
A. 華沙公約組織的簽署背景及原因：
隨著1949年北約的成立，蘇聯對於美、英、法等國的戒心已經大大增加，至1955年5月西德加入北約，成為蘇聯成立另一軍事組織以抗衡北約的導火線。結果，於1955年5月，蘇聯與保加利亞、羅馬尼亞、波蘭、東德等八國簽訂了《華沙公約》Warsaw Pact。
B. 華沙公約組織的內容：
Ø 當任何一締約國受到攻擊時，其他締約國必須作出援助。
C. 華沙公約組織的意義：
Ø 華沙公約組織的成立正式標誌著與北約的對立，形成軍事上的互相抗衡。
13. Establishment of Warsaw Treaty Organization華沙公約組織(1955)
A. Background and Results of establishment of Warsaw Treaty Organization:
Soviet Union increased its vigilance over Britain, France and United States after the formation of NATO (1949). Soviet Union realized it was necessary to set up a new military organization in confrontation with NATO with Western Germany's entry of NATO in 1955. Soviet Union signed Warsaw Pact《華沙公約》 with 8 nations including Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Eastern Germany in June 1955.
B. Content of Warsaw Treaty Organization:
Ø When a signed nation was under attack, another signed nations should provide military assistance.
C. Significance of establishment of Warsaw Treaty Organization:
Ø It signified the official confrontation against NATO with the establishment of counterbalance of military strength.
14. 日內瓦會議Geneva Summit (1955年)
A. 日內瓦會議的召開背景及原因：
面對韓戰的緊張局面，美國總統艾森豪Eisenhower提出「和平取勝」的策略，透過談判以軟化蘇聯的立場。另一方面，史太林於1953年死後，繼位的赫魯曉夫Khrushchev改變過往蘇聯的外交態度，願意以較和諧的方式相處，故提出了「和平共存」Peaceful coexistence、「和平競賽」Peaceful Competition及「和平過渡」Peaceful Transition三項主張。及至1955年7月，英、法、美、蘇四個首腦再次聚集於日內瓦舉行會議，討論有關和平共存的議題。
B. 日內瓦會議的意義：
Ø 雖然會議並未達成實質的重大決議，但會議的討論氣氛尚算和諧，美、英、法、蘇四國承諾盡力達致和平共存，故被稱為「日內瓦精神」Spirit of Geneva。
Ø 開啟了四國首腦高峯會議的先河，於1960年時，四國為解決柏林的問題而於巴黎召開了第二次高峯會議。(但第二次會議最終宣告流產)
14. Geneva Summit日內瓦會議 (1955)
A. Background and Reasons for calling Geneva Summit:
President of United States Eisenhower艾森豪 proposed "achieving victory peacefully" in softening stance of Soviet Union through conferences to relieve the intense situation during the Korean War. Khrushchev赫魯曉夫 took rule of Soviet Union after Stalin's death (1953) and took more harmonious approach, by advocating peaceful coexistence和平共存, peaceful competition和平競賽 and peaceful transition和平過渡. Geneva Summit was held in July 1955 with leaders of Britain, France, United States and Soviet Union to discuss issues about peaceful coexistence.
B. Significance of Geneva Summit:
Ø The harmonious atmosphere was remarkable though Geneva Summit did not bring upon significant achievements: Britain, US, France and USSR promised to attain peaceful coexistence, which was known as "Spirit of Geneva"日內瓦精神.
Ø It started the common practice of organizing "Four Nations Conference" with the second conference held in 1960 in Paris amongst the four nations. (Attempted to organize another meeting in discussing Berlin issues yet failed)
15. 蘇聯從奧地利撤軍Soviet withdrawal from Austria (1955年)
A. 蘇聯從奧地利撤軍的背景及原因：
於第二次世界大戰時期，蘇聯擊退了於奧地利Austria的德軍，佔領了奧地利。於戰後，蘇聯允許英、法、美共同駐軍奧地利。由於蘇聯與西方國家均恐怕奧地利會成為其中一方的棋子，故使奧地利的和約問題遲遲未能達成協議，蘇聯一直駐軍於奧地利。
直至史太林於1953年逝世，接任的赫魯曉夫態度較為溫和。加上，艾森豪於1953年當選為美國總統，使奧地利議題得以繼續。最終，於1955年5月，對奧地利的和約終於定案。奧地利成為一中立國，承諾不參加任何軍事集團及提供領土予其他國家駐軍或作為軍事基地。結果，蘇聯撤回駐奧地利的軍隊。
B. 蘇聯從奧地利撤軍的意義：
Ø 蘇聯願意撤軍反映赫魯曉夫政府願意與西方改善關係，獲得了西方國家的好感。
15. Soviet Union retreating from Austria蘇聯從奧地利撤軍 (1955)
A. Background and Reasons for Soviet Union retreating from Austria:
Soviet Union defeated German army in Austria奧地利 during WWII and occupied Austria. Soviet Union agreed to allow Britain, France and United States to co-occupy Austria with military forces. Yet, peace settlement about Austria could not attain consensus as both Western countries and Soviet Union feared that Austria would become a "puppet" for war for the other side. Khrushchev took milder attitude in resolving Austria's issue after Stalin’s death in 1953. In addition to this, Eisenhower was elected as President of United States that allows Austrian issue to be resolved. Consensus was made in May 1955: Austria should declare itself as a neutral country by promising not participating in any military alliance or offering its territory for other nations' occupation. Soviet Union's army retreated from Austria.
B. Significance of Soviet Union retreating from Austria:
Ø Soviet Union's retreat from Austria showed Khrushchev was keen on mending relationship with the West which made the West delighted about it.
16. 匈牙利革命的爆發Outbreak of the Hungarian Revolution (1956年)
A. 匈牙利革命的爆發背景及原因：
1956年10月，匈牙利Hungary爆發反蘇聯的革命，革命由學生集會引發，迅速發展成大規模的抗議示威，甚至連匈牙利士兵也加入。及後，匈牙利的新總理納吉Nagy試圖於匈牙利推行自由化及民主化的改革，並宣佈脫離華沙公約，使之成為一個中立國。
B. 匈牙利革命的結果：
最後，蘇聯派遣軍隊及坦克到匈牙利，成功鎮壓了革命。
C. 匈牙利革命的意義：
Ø 事件反映出東歐國家對蘇聯統治的不滿。
Ø 事件反映出蘇聯強硬鎮壓東歐國家的革命活動。
16. Outbreak of Hungarian Revolution匈牙利革命的爆發 (1956)
A. Background and Reasons for the outbreak of Hungarian Revolution:
Anti-USSR Revolution broke out in Hungary in October 1956 which was initiated from students' assembly. Hungarian Revolution was a large-scale revolution with soldiers' participation. New President of Hungary Nagy attempted to adopt liberations and democratic reforms, withdrew from Warsaw Pact and became a neutral nation.
B. Results of Hungarian Revolution:
Soviet Union sent troops and tankers to Hungary which successfully suppressed the Revolution.
C. Significance of Hungarian Revolution:
Ø Portrayed dissatisfaction of Eastern European nations towards rule of USSR.
Ø Reflected USSR's strong suppression towards revolution campaigns in Eastern Europe.
17. 蘇伊士運河戰爭Suez War (1956-57年)
A. 蘇伊士運河戰爭的爆發背景及原因：
蘇伊士運河戰爭是以色列Israel、英國、法國與埃及Egypt爆發的戰爭。由於蘇聯支持埃及的總統納塞爾Nasser，鼓勵納塞爾煽動阿拉伯民族主義，抗衡以色列及英、法等殖民地帝國。因此，埃及於1956年宣佈將蘇伊士運河國有化nationalization of the Suez Canal，此舉大大影響了英、法於蘇伊士運河的利益，故英、法聯同以色列出兵埃及。
B. 蘇伊士運河戰爭中美、蘇的態度：
Ø 美國譴責英、法兩國。
Ø 由於蘇聯希望轉移國際社會對於其出兵匈牙利的關注，故介入事件，並向英、法表示不排除動用核武保護埃及。
C. 蘇伊士運河戰爭的意義：
Ø 蘇聯支持埃及的態度使美、英、法等國家大為猜疑，美國總統艾森豪發表「艾森豪主義」Eisenhower Doctrine，對中東進行經濟及軍事的援助，以彌補法國及英國於中東的勢力衰退。
Ø 蘇聯支持埃及的舉動也引起了美國的不滿，故「艾森豪主義」的另一意義在於抗衡蘇聯於中東的擴張。
17. Suez War蘇伊士運河戰爭 (1956-57)
A. Background and Reasons for the outbreak of Suez War:
Suez War was a war amongst Israel以色列, Britain, France and Egypt埃及. Soviet Union supported President of Egypt Nasser納塞爾 in establishing Arab nationalism in confrontation with colonial empires such as Israel, Britain and France. Hence, Egypt announced the nationalization of Suez Canal蘇伊士運河國有化 in 1956 which greatly affected interest of Britain and France in Suez Canal. Britain and France joined Israel in sending troops to Egypt.
B. Attitude portrayed by US and USSR in Suez War:
Ø United States condemned Britain and France.
Ø Soviet Union involved in Suez War as it hoped that the international focus could be placed on this war rather than its involvement in Hungarian Revolution. Soviet Union claimed that it may use nuclear weapons to protect Egypt.
C. Significance of Suez War:
Ø Soviet Union's attitude in supporting Egypt greatly increased vigilance of United States, Britain and France. President of United States Eisenhower announced Eisenhower Doctrine艾森豪主義 in providing economic and military assistance to Middle East to compensate British and French loss of strength in Middle East.
Ø Soviet Union’s attitude in supporting Egypt made United States greatly dissatisfied. Eisenhower Doctrine was also aiming at confronting Soviet Union’s expansion in Middle East.
18. 蘇聯發射首個人造衛星artificial satellite (1957年)
A. 蘇聯發射首個人造衛星的背景及原因：
早於第二次世界大戰時，德、美、蘇已經有開發太空的計劃，當時德國的火箭技術最為先進。於戰後，美國繳獲了德國的火箭技術，但蘇聯也不甘示弱，最終於1957年成功發射首個人造衛星上太空，成為首個成功發射人造衛星到太空的國家。
B. 蘇聯發射首個人造衛星的內容：
1957年10月，蘇聯宣佈成功把世界上第一顆環繞地球運行的人造衛星「伴侶一號」(又稱「斯普特尼克一號」Sputnik 1)送入軌道。
C. 蘇聯發射首個人造衛星的意義：
Ø 成功發射人造衛星上太空也代表該國有投送核武器的火箭，對美國而言是一個極大的威脅。因此，美國加快對於發射人造衛星的研究，並於1958年1月，發射了史上第二個人造衛星「探險者一號」Explorer 1上太空。
Ø 蘇聯成功發射首個人造衛星上太空揭開了太空競賽的序幕，激起各國研制和發射人造衛星的熱潮，美國的「阿波羅十一號」Apollo 11更於1969年7月成功登月。
18. Soviet Union sending up its first artificial satellite人造衛星 (1957)
A. Background and Reasons for USSR sending up its first artificial satellite:
Plans of space development existed in Germany, United States and Soviet Union during WWII, with the highest level of technology in Germany. United States was given Germany's technology, yet Soviet Union was also on the track and eventually sent its first artificial satellite to space in 1957. Soviet Union was the first nation which successfully sent its artificial satellite to space.
B. Content of USSR sending up its first artificial satellite:
Soviet Union announced its success in sending the world’s first Earth-revolving artificial satellite Sputnik 1斯普特尼克一號 on track in October 1957.
C. Significance of USSR sending up its first artificial satellite:
Ø USSR's success in sending up its first artificial satellite signified Soviet Union also had the rocket carrying nuclear weapons which served as a great threat to US - United States thus sped up its research in sending up artificial satellites and sent its first artificial satellite "Explorer 1"探險者一號to space in 1958.
Ø USSR’s success in sending up its first artificial satellite marked the beginning of space race and stimulated different nations in researching and sending up artificial satellites. United States’ “Apollo 11” 阿波羅十一號 even landed on Moon in July 1969.
19. 美、蘇領導人的互訪(1959年)
A. 美、蘇領導人的互訪的背景及原因：
由於1958年時，美、英與蘇聯於阿拉伯地區發生了分歧，蘇聯希望支持埃及的總統納塞爾Nasser，但美、英則對蘇聯的態度感到憂慮，恐怕蘇聯於中東的勢力擴大。事件導致了美、英與蘇聯關係的惡化，蘇聯更於同年10月宣佈不承認西方國家在西柏林的佔領權。最終，蘇聯的態度因美、英、法的強硬反對立場而軟化。
B. 美、蘇領導人的互訪的內容：
Ø 於1959年1月，蘇聯副總理米高揚Mikoyan訪美，建議召開高峯會議解決有關柏林的爭端。
Ø 同年7月，美國副總統尼克遜Nixon訪問蘇聯。
Ø 同年8月，美、蘇政府公佈兩國首腦互相訪問的計劃。
Ø 同年9月，赫魯曉夫Khrushchev訪問美國，於大衛營Camp David與美國總統艾森豪Eisenhower會談。雙方討論了柏林及裁軍的問題。由於會談氣氛和諧，赫魯曉夫更形容為「大衛營精神」Spirit of Camp David。
C. 美、蘇領導人的互訪的意義：
Ø 兩國領導人的互訪使美、蘇兩國的緊張關係暫時融冰。
Ø 但實質上，是次會晤未有達成實際的作用，柏林及裁軍問題並未得到解決。而且，是次的互訪並非官式的訪問，故只能緩和兩國的關係。
19. Exchanged visits of US and USSR leaders (1959)
A. Background and Reasons for exchanged visits of US and USSR leaders:
Conflicts aroused in Arabs between Soviet Union and US & Britain in 1958. Soviet Union supported President of Egypt Nasser, making Britain and United States worried about Soviet Union's expansion in Middle East. Relationship between USSR and US & Britain was even aggravated when Soviet Union not admitting Western countries' right of occupation in West Berlin in October 1958. Soviet Union's stance became milder after US, Britain and France expressed their strong opposing stances.
B. Content of exchanged visits of US and USSR leaders:
Ø January 1959: Vice-President of USSR Mikoyan visited US, purposed calling for conference in solving Berlin conflicts.
Ø July 1959: Vice-President of US Nixon visited Soviet Union.
Ø August 1959: US and USSR announced plans of leaders' exchanged visits.
Ø October 1959: Khrushchev visited United States and chatted with Eisenhower in Camp David, with both nations discussing Berlin and disarmament issues. As there was harmonious atmosphere, Khrushchev described such as Spirit of Camp David.
C. Significance of exchanged visits of US and USSR leaders:
Ø Exchanged visits of leaders of US and USSR temporarily melted the frozen relationship.
Ø Yet, exchanged visits did not bring about practical uses as Berlin and disarmament issues were not solved, thus this served only mitigating both nations' relationship as it was not an official exchanged visit.
20. U-2擊墜事件U-2 incident (1960年)
A. U-2擊墜事件的發生背景及原因：
美國自1957年起已派遣高空偵察機「U-2」型號到蘇聯進行軍事偵察。於1960年5月，當時正值是美、蘇、法、英四國舉行第二次高峯會議(於巴黎)的前夕。蘇聯成功擊墜一架在蘇聯上空偵察的U-2偵察機Surveillance aircraft。
B. U-2擊墜事件的意義：
Ø 美、蘇關係因是次事件而急劇惡化，結束了美、蘇緩和冷戰關係的嘗試。
Ø 於第二次高峯會議開幕時，赫魯曉夫強烈批評及譴責美國的偵察行動，並要求美國就事件道歉及懲處相關官員。但美國拒絕，導致第二次高峯會議告吹。
20. U-2 Incident (1960)
A. Background and Reasons of the outbreak of U-2 Incident:
US's "U-2" surveillance aircraft was sent to Soviet Union for military investigation since 1957. Soviet Union successfully hit a "U-2" surveillance aircraft before the start of the second "Four Nations Conference" held amongst United States, Soviet Union, France and Britain in May 1960 in Paris.
B. Significance of U-2 Incident:
Ø US-USSR relationship greatly worsened, ending both nations’ attempt of mitigating Cold War.
Ø Khrushchev strongly condemned and criticized US’s investigation and requested United States to apologize and punish officials related, yet it was rejected by United States. It led to the failure of organizing the second “Four Nations Conference”.
21. 柏林圍牆Berlin Wall的興建(1961年)
A. 興建柏林圍牆的背景及原因：
原定於1960年5月商討柏林問題的四國首腦高峯會議流產告終，而當時西德的經濟藉著美國的馬歇爾計劃及歐洲的經濟合作而成功復甦起來。相反，東德原本的經濟基礎較弱，加上蘇聯的復甦政策無效，使經濟仍然差劣，遠遠落後於西德。同時，許多生活在東德的資本家、商人及地主對東德的社會改革不滿，紛紛移居至西德，甚至連普通工人也紛紛離去。為阻止東德人民逃到西柏林，蘇聯下令東德政府建造圍牆分隔兩地。
B. 興建柏林圍牆的過程及結果：
於1961年8月，東德議會通過了修建柏林圍牆的法令，圍繞西柏林興建了一道長約160公里、高4.2米的圍牆。雖然事件中，美、英、法三國家表示抗議，美國更甚至從西德調派軍隊到西柏林。但由於柏林圍牆並未有切斷西柏林與西方國家的接觸，故事件最終得以平息。
C. 興建柏林圍牆的意義：
Ø 將西柏林與東德分隔開，直至1989年11月才被推倒。
Ø 事件再次激發起美、蘇之間的軍備競賽，蘇聯也於1961年9月恢復核試驗。此外，正正因為蘇聯希望於古巴建立導彈基地而導致了古巴導彈危機。
21. Construction of Berlin Wall柏林圍牆(1961)
A. Background and Reasons for construction of Berlin Wall:
2nd "Four Nations Conference" (to be held in May 1960) with the aim to discuss Berlin issues was cancelled. Western Germany's economy revived due to Marshall Plan and European economic cooperation, yet Eastern Germany's economy remained poor as it had poor economic basis and was affected by the failure of USSR's economic revival plans. Lots of capitalists, merchants and land owners were dissatisfied with the social reforms of Eastern Germany and even the workers left for Western Germany. Soviet Union started to build Berlin Wall to prevent people of Eastern Germany to migrate.
B. Process and Results of construction of Berlin Wall:
People's Chamber of Eastern Germany passed the law of construction of Berlin Wall in August 1961 which was around Western Berlin with length of 160km and height of 4.2m. United States, Britain and France strongly protested, with US sending its troops from Western Germany to Western Berlin. Yet, the crisis did not elevate as the construction of Berlin Wall did not cut communication between Western Berlin and western nations.
C. Significance of construction of Berlin Wall:
Ø It divided Eastern and Western Germany, until its fall in November 1989.
Ø It provoked armaments race between US and USSR, with USSR resuming its nuclear test in September 1961. Cuban Missile Crisis was induced as Soviet Union would like to construct a missile base in Cuba.
22. 越戰Vietnam War (1961-75年)
A. 越戰的爆發背景及原因：
越南原屬於法國的殖民地，二戰期間被日本佔領。於二戰結束前後，胡志明Ho Chi Minh領導的越盟在越南北方建立了共產主義的北越，法國則於戰後扶植了越南國王保大Bao Dai在南方的南越政權。於1945-1954年期間，北越和法國展開了長達9年的抗爭與戰爭，最終，在中國的軍事援助下，法國撤出越南北部。列強曾於1954年召開了日內瓦會議Geneva Conference嘗試解決越南的問題(並非1955年的日內瓦首腦高峯會議)，會議決定南、北越以北緯17度綫分治。
1959年，北越決定採用武力統一越南，於是派遣大量軍事人員潛往南越組織武裝暴動。後來，美國為扶植自己的南越政府，也於1961年5月派遣了一隊特種部隊進入越南，並於1965年後大量派軍到越南作戰。因此，不同書籍對於越戰的開始時間也不一，有1959年、1961年，甚至有指是1965年才開始。
B. 越戰的內容：
戰事直至1975年以胡志明為首的北越成功完成全面的統一。
C. 越戰的意義：
Ø 短期而言，事件引發出美國與蘇聯、中國的關係惡化，因蘇聯與中國支持共產主義的北越，美國則支持南越。
Ø 越南戰爭對美軍造成沉重的經濟及軍事負擔，每年戰費高達300億美元，而平均每週就有300名美軍戰死沙場。
Ø 美國國內的反戰情緒及戰費開支有助促成1970年代美、蘇裁減軍備，許多美國人均支持美國實行不直接干涉的政策，使冷戰於1970年代有所緩和。
22. Vietnam War越戰 (1961-75)
A. Background and Reasons for the outbreak of Vietnam War:
Vietnam, as a French colony, was occupied by Japan during WWII. Viet Minh led by Ho Chi Minh胡志明 established the communist Northern Vietnam around the end of WWII, while Southern Vietnam was established by King of Vietnam Bao Dai保大 under the assistance of France - Northern Vietnam had war with France during 1945-54, yet resulted in France's retreat under China's military assistance. Geneva Conference日內瓦會議 (1954) (not Geneva Summit in 1955) attempted to solve Vietnam issues, deciding to divide Southern and Northern Vietnam along 17th Parallel. In 1959, Northern Vietnam would like to unify Vietnam forcefully by sending military experts to organize military riots in Southern Vietnam. As United States would like to establish its Southern Vietnam government, it sent a special force to Vietnam in May 1961, then sent large amount of troops for war since 1965. Thus, different historians had varied opinion towards the beginning of Vietnam War. Some said that it began in 1959, while some said 1961 and there were even some said that it began in 1965.
B. Content of Vietnam War:
Northern Vietnam led by Ho Chi Minh was successful in attaining unification in 1975.
C. Significance of Vietnam War:
Ø Vietnam War aggravated relationship between United States and USSR & China as Northern Vietnam was supported by Soviet Union and China while Southern Vietnam was supported by United States.
Ø Vietnam War induced tough economic and military burden on US, with USD30 billion annual military expenses and 300 weekly deaths of US soldiers.
Ø US's domestic anti-war campaigns and extremely high military expenses made US and USSR starting to disarm in 1970s, and mitigated Cold War in 1970s as Americans supported US to adopt non-directly-interfering policies.
23. 古巴導彈危機Cuban Missile Crisis (1962年)
A. 古巴導彈危機的發生背景及原因：
導彈missile有飛行距離的限制，而且飛行距離過長會容易受到反導彈裝置的攔截。因此，導彈基地不能建於遠離目標的地方。由於美國於1959年開始於意大利和土耳其Turkey分別佈置了30和15枚對準蘇聯的導彈，令蘇聯深感受到威脅。恰巧1959年1月，卡斯特羅Castro於古巴Cuba建立了共產主義的政權，與蘇聯關係密切。蘇聯便希望利用古巴鄰近美國的地理形勢，建立導彈基地，以制衡美國的導彈佈署。
B. 古巴導彈危機的過程：
Ø 1962年10月17日，美國的U-2偵察機證實了蘇聯於古巴佈置了16-32枚飛彈，而這些飛彈距離能攻擊美國的大部分重要城市。
Ø 10月22日，美軍進入警備狀態。總統甘迺迪Kennedy要求蘇聯撤回飛彈。
Ø 10月24日，美國對古巴正式進行封鎖。
Ø 10月26日，蘇聯不理封鎖，繼續在古巴佈署飛彈。
Ø 10月27日，一架U-2偵察機及一架RF-8A偵察機被蘇聯擊落。甘迺迪與赫魯曉夫進行秘密外交談判。
Ø 10月28日，秘密外交談判成功，事件得以解決。
C. 古巴導彈危機的談判結果：
Ø 蘇聯撤回於古巴的導彈；
Ø 美國撤回在意、土的導彈，並宣佈取消對古巴的封鎖及不會入侵古巴。
D. 古巴導彈危機的意義：
Ø 此次危機是第二次世界大戰後美、蘇最接近開戰的一次危機，美、蘇雙方均作出了軍事佈署，至美國的兩架偵察機被蘇聯擊落，大戰更幾乎一觸即發。
Ø 由於兩國均恐懼戰爭會摧毀雙方，故願意重建關係，如於1963年6月簽訂協議，建立了「熱線」hot line，以供兩國元首直接交換意見，並於1963年簽訂《禁止核試條約》Nuclear Test Ban Treaty，開展限制核武的談判。
Ø 美國於1963年4月撤回意大利和土耳其的「雷神」Thor和「朱比特」Jupiter導彈。
23. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
A. Background and Reasons for the occurrence of Cuban Missile Crisis:
As there is restriction in missile's導彈 flying distance, missile base cannot be built in places too far away from its target as it may be easily caught by counter-missile devices if the distance is too long. Soviet Union was greatly threatened as United States located 30 and 15 missiles in Italy意大利 and Turkey土耳其 respectively which were pointed directly at Soviet Union in 1959. At the same time, Castro卡斯特羅 created communist regime in Cuba古巴 in 1959 with friendly relationship with Soviet Union. Hence, Soviet Union would like to make use of Soviet Union's geographical proximity to United States and construct its missile base in counterbalancing United States.
B. Process of Cuban Missile Crisis:
Ø 17th October: US's U-2 surveillance aircraft detected 16-32 missiles of Soviet Union in Cuba, which could attack most of significant cities of United States.
Ø 22nd October: President Kennedy甘迺迪 required USSR to remove the missiles with soldiers of United States on alert.
Ø 24th October: US officially declared blockade of Cuba.
Ø 26th October: USSR continued to place missiles in Cuba regardless of US's action.
Ø 27th October: 1 U-2 and 1 RF-8A US surveillance aircraft were shot by Soviet Union, leading to secret diplomatic conference between Kennedy and Khrushchev.
Ø 28th October: Crisis was resolved with success in the diplomatic conference.
C. Results of Cuban Missile Crisis Negotiation Conference:
Ø Soviet Union agreed to remove Cuba’s missiles;
Ø United States agreed to remove missiles in Italy and Turkey and declared cancellation of Cuban blockade as well as promised not to invade Cuba.
D. Significance of Cuban Missile Crisis:
Ø It was the most intense crisis after WWII that war between US and USSR almost broke out. US and USSR were both militarily prepared and war almost started after Soviet Union had shot down US surveillance aircrafts.
Ø US and USSR would like to reconstruct mutual relationship, thus established "hotline"熱線 during the agreement made in June 1963, enabling both nations' leaders to exchange opinion directly. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty《禁止核試條約》was signed in 1963 to start discussion in prohibiting nuclear weapons.
Ø US retreated missile Thor and Jupiter from Italy and Turkey in April 1963.
24. 《禁止核試條約》Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963年)
A. 《禁止核試條約》的簽訂背景及原因：
古巴導彈危機令美、蘇戰爭幾乎一觸即發，為了緩和核武引致的緊張局勢，美、蘇及英國於1963年8月在莫斯科簽訂《禁止核試條約》。
B. 《禁止核試條約》的內容：
Ø 禁止簽署國在大氣層、太空和水下進行核武器的試驗。
C. 《禁止核試條約》的意義：
Ø 限制核試驗的方式有助減低核軍備競賽及緩和冷戰的緊張局勢。
Ø 但條約並未有對地下核試驗進行規管，因此並不能完全杜絕核試驗。
24. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty《禁止核試條約》(1963)
A. Background and Reasons for signing Nuclear Test Ban Treaty:
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was signed to mitigate US-USSR relationship which was aggravated by development of nuclear weapons and Cuban Missile Crisis. It was signed by US, USSR and Britain in August 1963 in Moscow.
B. Content of Nuclear Test Ban Treaty:
Ø It banned all signatories in conducting nuclear tests in the atmosphere, space and underwater.
C. Significance of Anschluss:
Ø Signature of the Treaty successfully enabled mitigation of Cold War and armaments race.
Ø Yet, the Treaty did not prohibit underground nuclear test thus it failed to completely put a halt to nuclear tests.
25. 捷克的「布拉格之春」Prague Spring (1968年)
A. 「布拉格之春」的發生背景及原因：
捷克Czech的共產黨領導人杜布切克Dubček於1968年1月上台後隨即發起了一個名為「布拉格之春」的政治改革，提出「帶有人性面孔的社會主義」socialism with a human face，准許人民享有較多的自由，史稱「布拉格之春」。
B. 「布拉格之春」的結果：
由於杜布切克的改革帶有民主成份，加上准許國內人民與西方國家接觸。因此，被蘇聯視為是脫離共產主義，走近資本主義的行為。結果，於1968年8月，5個華沙公約成員國派軍一夜間佔領了捷克，結束了是次「布拉格之春」的政治改革。並且，於1969年4月，杜布切克被迫辭職，其接任人繼續實行原有的共產主義統治。
C. 「布拉格之春」的意義：
Ø 蘇聯領導人布里茲尼夫於「布拉格之春」的事件前後推行了一系列對外擴張及加強對東歐國家控制的政策，此即為「布里茲尼夫主義」Brezhnev Doctrine，反映蘇聯對於東歐國家的嚴厲控制。
Ø 蘇聯鎮壓「布拉格之春」引起了捷克人民的不滿，是東歐國家不滿蘇聯統治的例子之一。
Ø 於蘇聯入侵捷克後，美、英、法等國家有所抗議，並於聯合國召開了緊急會議，要求蘇聯撤軍。但由於蘇聯行使常任理事國的否決權，故決議無效。
25. Czechoslovakia’s Prague Spring布拉格之春 (1968)
A. Background and Reasons for the outbreak of Prague Spring:
Leader of Czechoslovakia Communist Party, Dubcek, established the Prague Spring political reform once he took rule in January 1968. He advocated socialism with a human face帶有人性面孔的社會主義, enabling citizens to enjoy more freedom. It was known as Prague Spring historically.
B. Results of Prague Spring:
Prague Spring included democratic essences and enabled citizens to communicate with Western nations. Thus, Soviet Union considered that Prague Spring attempted to deviate from Communism and support Capitalism. 5 Warsaw Treaty Organization nations sent its troops to occupy Czechoslovakia in a night in August 1968, marking the end of Prague Spring. Dubcek was forced to resign with its successor continuing Communism rule in April 1969.
C. Significance of Prague Spring:
Ø Soviet Union's leader Brezhnev established a series of expansion schemes and intensified policies in controlling Eastern European nations, known as "Brezhnev Doctrine"布里茲尼夫主義, which reflected Soviet Union's harsh control on Eastern European nations.
Ø Soviet Union's suppression of Prague Spring stirred up Czechoslovakians' anger, which was an example illustrating Eastern European nations' dissatisfaction towards Soviet Union.
Ø US, Britain and France protested Soviet Union's suppression and called emergency conference requesting USSR's retreat in United Nations, yet was rejected by USSR using its veto power.
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