1. 同盟會成立(1905年) Formation of the Tongmenghui (1905)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
早於1894年，孫中山已於夏威夷檀香山創立興中會以推動中國革命事業。及後又於1895年於香港成立興中會總部。於興中會時期，其宗旨是「驅逐韃虜，恢復中華，創立民國，平均地權」。
As early as 1894, Sun Yat-sen established the Revive China Society in Honolulu, Hawaii to promote the revolution in China. In 1895, he established the headquarter of the Revive China Society in Hong Kong. The aim of the society is "to expel the northern barbarians and to revive Zhonghua, to establish a republic, and to distribute land equally among the people.”
隨著滿清政府的腐敗，愈來愈多的人士組成革命黨以圖動搖滿清管治，例如華興會、光復會等。後來，孫中山希望集合各革命組織之力，故於1905年與華興會、光復會等多個革命組織合併，於東京創立了同盟會，並以「三民主義」為宗旨，即「民族、民生、民權」。
Under the failure of the Manchu Government, more and more people formed different revolutionary parties to shake up the governance of the Qing Dynasty. Such as the Huaxing Association and the Restoration Council. Sun Yat-sen then would like to assemble the power of various revolutionary organizations. In 1905, he merged several revolutionary organizations such as the Huaxing Association and the Restoration Council. He then established Tongmenghui in Tokyo with “Three Principles of the People” as its aim which is referring to “nationalism, democracy, and the livelihood of the people”.
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 同盟會的成立壯大了革命勢力，多次發動革命以圖推翻晚清政府。於1911年10月10日，由同盟會的外圍組織共進會與湖北新軍革命組織文學社共同策略的辛亥革命成功誘發了全國各省份宣佈獨立，迫使清帝退位，結束了中國實行二千多年的帝制。
Ø The formation of the Tongmenghui strengthened the revolutionary force. After formation of the Tongmenghui, a number of revolutions were initiated by it in an attempt to overthrow the Late Qing government. On October 10, 1911, the Progressive Association, which had an external linkage with the Tongmenghui, cooperated with the Literary Society, which was a newly founded revolutionary organisation in Hubei, to induce different provinces to declare independence. This forced the abdication of the Qing Emperor, ending the imperial system in China which lasted for more than 2000 years.
2. 辛亥革命(1911年) The 1911 Revolution (1911)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
於1911年5月，滿清政府宣布實行鐵路國有化政策，將民間自資興建的鐵路收歸國有。此政策導致了大批地方鄉紳的不滿，其中以四川鄉紳發起了保路運動，以抗議鐵路國有化政策。
In May 1911, the Manchu Government announced the policy of nationalizing railway. All railway invested by the citizens would be nationalized. This led to dissatisfaction of the citizens. Particularly, Sichuan province initiated the Railway Protection Movement in response to the policy.
由於保路風潮愈演愈烈，清政府於9月調派湖北新軍入川，結果導致湖北軍防空洞。革命黨人想趁機發動起義，但革命黨員孫武秘密製造炸彈時，於10月9日發生爆炸意外，不慎將革命文件涉漏。清政府隨即搜捕革命黨人，更有多名革命黨人被捕後在10日清晨被斬首。結果，革命黨人心惶惶，尤以是支持革命的新軍。
As the Railway Protection Movement became more and more serious, the Qing Government deployed Hubei Army to Sichuan in September. This made Huibei lack of protection. The revolutionaries wanted to take the opportunity to launch an uprising. However, an explosion accident happened when Sun Wu, a revolutionary member, secretly created a bomb on 9th October. This resulted in a leak of revolutionary documents. The Qing government immediately arrested the revolutionaries. Some of the revolutionaries were detained on the 10th morning. As a result, fear was spread among the revolutionaries, especially those who supported the new army.
於10月10日晚，湖北新軍中的革命黨人決定提早起義，響起了武昌起義的第一槍。在隨後兩天，革命軍先後攻克漢陽、漢口二地，建立由黎元洪領導的中華民國軍政府鄂軍都督府，並改國號為「中華民國」。儘管清廷奮力對抗，而清軍更在11月佔回漢陽、漢口二地，但國內多省包括湖南、四川、安徽及廣東等均先後宣佈獨立，掀起了省份獨立的浪潮，清廷的管治名存實亡。
On 10th October, some of the revolutionaries decided to start the revolution earlier than planned. In the following two days, the revolutionary army conquered Hanyang and Hankou respectively and established the military government of the Republic of China led by Li Yuanhong and changed the country's name to "the Republic of China." Although the Qing Government fought hard and took back Hanyang and Hankou in November, many provinces including Hunan, Sichuan, Anhui, and Guangdong became independent respectively. The governance of the Qing Government was failed.
最後，中華民國臨時政府在1912年1月1日於南京成立，由孫中山任臨時大總統。清帝溥儀亦在同年2月12日宣佈退位，滿清滅亡，帝制亦宣告結束。 Finally, the Provisional Government of the Republic of China was established in Nanjing on 1st January 1, 1912. Sun Yat-sen was appointed the provisional. The Pu Yi also announced his abdication on 12th February of the same year. The Qing Dynasty came to an end and the imperial system was also ended.
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 辛亥革命結束了實行長達2000年的帝制，破除了舊有的制度。
The 1911 Revolution put an end to the autocratic monarchy that had ruled China for more than 2 000 years.
Ø 然而，辛亥革命未能確立共和體制及建立穩定的政局，令民國初年的中國政治動盪不堪，不單單先後有袁世凱和張勳復辟帝制，後更陷入軍閥混戰的亂局。
However, the 1911 Revolution failed to set up a republic and a stable political situation. There was instability in the early years of the Republic of China. Yuan Shikai and Zhang Xun attempted to restore the imperial system, afterwards there were chaos caused by the warlords.
Ø 其他詳細影響請參考常規班筆記。
Other detailed impact please refer to Regular Course notes.
3. 二次革命(1913年) The Second Revolution (1913)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
1911年的辛亥革命推翻了滿清政府的統治，建立了中華民國。為使革命成果不會受到手握六鎮北洋新軍的袁世凱破壞，孫中山將臨時大總統一職讓位予袁世凱。然而，袁世凱無心建立共和，更銳意加強個人權力。
The 1911 Revolution overthrew the ruling of the Qing government and the Republic of China was established. In order to make sure that the fruit of revolution would not be destroyed by Yuan Shi-kai, Sun Yat-sen gave the place of the provisional president to him. However, Yuan lacked sincerity in forming a republic, he just wanted to increase his personal influence.
1913年2月，國民黨於中華民國國會大選中大獲全勝，原定由國民黨黨魁宋教仁組閣，但宋教仁於3月20日遭受到行刺而身亡。兇手雖然被捕，但卻離奇死亡。大多觀點均認為袁世凱是幕後黑手，孫中山甚至於事件後也提出討伐袁世凱的意見，但因國民黨內部意見不一而未有行動。
In February of 1913, the Kuomintang (KMT) got a landslide victory in the parliament election of the Republic of China. The original chairman of KMT, Song Jiao-ren, formed a cabinet. However, Song was being assassinated on 20 March. Although the assassin was arrested, he died in a bizarre way. Most people believed that Yuan was the wire-puller of the assassination. Sun Yat-sen even suggested fighting against Yuan, but such suggestion was not taken into action due to the diverse opinion within the KMT.
至4月20日，袁世凱為首的北洋政府向英、法、德、俄、日五國銀團借款2,500萬英鎊。江西都督李烈鈞等國民黨成員均反對袁世凱的借貸方案，因國民黨認為袁世凱的借貸是為了擴展北洋軍隊。事後，李烈鈞被袁世凱免職。
On 20 April, the Beiyang government headed by Yuan borrowed 25 million pounds from Britain, France, Germany, Russia and Japan. Members of KMT, including Li Lie-jun, the Military Governor of Jiangxi, opposed to Yuan suggestion of obtaining loan as the KMT thought that the rationale behind such move was to expand the Beiyang Army. After the incident, Li Lie-jun was being dismissed by Yuan.
至7月12日，被免職的李烈鈞在孫中山的指示下成立「討袁軍總司令」，並發表電報宣佈討伐袁世凱，「二次革命」爆發。
On 12 July, Li Lie-jun, who has been removed from office, received an order from Sun and established ‘Taoyuan Military Headquarters’. After that, he sent a telegram and announced that he would send a punitive expedition to fight Yuan. This sparked the ‘Second Revolution’.
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 二次革命沒有得到成功，完全被北洋軍隊擊潰。事後，孫中山再次流亡海外，及後秘密成立中華革命黨(1914年)，以繼續推動革命事業。
The Second Revolution did not succeed. The army of Li was totally smashed by the Beiyang Army. After that, Sun exiled in foreign country. He then secretly formed the Chinese Revolutionary Party (1914) and continued in promoting his revolution career.
Ø 袁世凱的舉動導致了二次革命的出現，中國此後出現連連戰爭及動盪局面，經濟生產受到大大阻礙。
Yuan’s act resulted in the Second Revolution. Afterwards, there were several war which hindered the economic production.
4. 廿一條款(1915年) Twenty One Demands (1915)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
1914年第一次世界大戰於歐洲爆發，日本銳意希望趁歐洲列強無瑕干預中國事務時，加強對中國的控制及主權侵佔。1915年1月，日本駐中國公使拜見袁世凱，向袁世凱提出了二十一條要求，史稱「廿一條款」。
When the First World War broke out in Europe in 1914, Japan would like to extend its control and invade China when the European powers were busy handling their own issues. In January 1915, the Japanese Ambassador to China met with Yuan Shikai and made a set of twenty one demands, which is known as “Twenty-One Demands”.
B. 主要內容Content:
Ø 日本接收德國在山東的權益，並且有鐵路修築權、定居權及通商權等。
Japan would seize the interest of Germany in Shandong with gaining the rights like railway building rights, the right to settle and trade rights, etc.
C. 意義Significance:
Ø 經過袁世凱政府的致力交涉後，最終未有簽訂原有的「廿一條款」，但簽訂了《中日民四條約》。雖然《中日民四條約》的苛刻程度不及「廿一條款」，但仍舊將中國山東的權益給予了日本。
After negotiations, Yuan didn’t sign the Twenty-One Demands but the Japan-China Treaty of 1915 instead. Although Japan-China Treaty of 1915 was not as harsh as the Twenty-One Demands, the interests in Shandong was still given to Japan.
Ø 廿一條款引起了中國國民的強烈不滿，開啟了廣義而言的五四運動，國人積極討論如何救國。
The Twenty-One Demands aroused great dissatisfaction of the Chinese citizens which started the May Fourth Movement. Citizens started to find ways to save the country.
Ø 廿一條款反映了中國的外交地位在辛亥革命後仍然低下，中國最終需要在《中日民四條約》中將山東權益給予日本。
The Twenty One Demands reflected that the diplomatic status of China was still low after the 1911 Revolution. China was forced to hand over the interest in Shandong to Japan.
5. 袁世凱復辟(1915年) Revival of monarchy of Yuan Shikai (1915)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
袁世凱於1912年當任臨時大總統之職後，已經開始著手鞏固政權，逐步邁向專制獨裁。其先於1913年以國民黨有奪權的意圖為由，解散國民黨，及後又於1914年以《中華民國約法》取代《臨時約法》，不但使其權力不受於約法所限，更規定總統能夠總攪統治權，其權力已經形同皇帝。
After becoming the provisional president in 1912, Yuan Shikai has begun to consolidate his power and gradually moved towards autocratic dictatorship. First, he dismissed the Kuomintang by claiming that the Kuomintang had the intention of seizing power in 1913. Later, he replaced the "Provisional Covenant Law" with the "Law of the Republic of China" in 1914. This made his power became free from the restriction of the law, it also stipulated that the president has the control of the ruling power. This made the president’s power equal to an emperor.
同時，其利用親屬製造輿論，營造出民間渴望袁世凱復辟帝制之假象，再利用其操控的參政院以制定出《國民代表大會組織法》，規定由國民代表大會決定國體，結果在大會的投票下一致通過恢復帝制，使袁世凱能夠冠冕堂皇地獲得帝位，於1915年12月12日宣佈稱帝。
At the same time, Yuan created the illusion that the people longed for Yuan Shikai to revive the monarchy. He then controlled the Council of State to formulate the Constitutional Law of the National Assembly, which stipulated that the National People’s Congress should determine the state of the nation. The monarchy was revived under the unanimous vote in the Council. Yuan Shikai declared himself emperor on 12th December, 1915 officially.
B. 意義 Significance:
Ø 袁世凱稱帝的行為反映了辛亥革命的成果尚未穩固，民國尚未確立，專權情況仍然。除了袁世凱復辟外，張勳亦於1917年擁護溥儀復辟。
The revivial of monarchy implied that the impact of 1911 Revolution had not been consolidated. The establishment of the Republic of China was not confirmed with the authoritarian control remained unchanged. Other than the revivial of monarchy by Yuan, Zhang Xun also supported Puyi’s restoration of power in 1917.
Ø 袁世凱稱帝引起了各方的不滿，李烈鈞、蔡鍔、唐繼堯等地方軍閥發動了討袁戰爭(或稱「護國戰爭」或「反帝戰爭」)。及後，南方各省亦紛紛宣布獨立，最終迫使袁世凱於實行帝制83天後就被迫取消。袁世凱於6月6日亦逝世。
The restoration of Yuan’s power aroused great dissatisfaction. Warlords such as Li Liejun, Cai Yong and Tanf Jiyao imitated wars towards Yuan (Also known as “National War” or “Anti-Imperial War”). Later, provinces in the south declared their independence respectively. This forced Yuan to abolished the imperialism after 83 days. Yuan also passed away on the 6th June.
6. 五四運動(1919年) (狹義) May Fourth Movement (1919)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
自1915年，日本迫使中國簽訂《廿一條款》及陳獨秀、李大釗等人於1915年成立《新青年》以積極進行救國的討論起，中國國民的愛國及救國意識迅速提高，開展了廣義而言的五四運動。然而，五四運動的高潮乃1919年5月4日反對巴黎和會不公平安排的全國大型示威運動。
Since 1915, after China was forced by Japan to sign the "Twenty One Demands" and Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao established the "New Youth" in 1915 to actively carry out the discussion on saving the nation, Chinese nation's patriotism and national salvation awareness had rapidly enhanced. It markted the start of the May Fourth Movement in general. However, the climax of the May Fourth Movement was the large-scale of national demonstration on 4th May 4, 1919 against the unfair arrangement in the Paris Peace Conference.
於1919年，儘管中國以戰勝國身份出席巴黎和會，希望取回德國原有在中國的利益，但列強卻漠視中國的請求，將德國在中國的山東權益轉交予日本，結果引發了中國國民的強烈抗議。同時，北洋軍閥政府未能捍衛中國權益，屈服於列強的決定也使國人所憤恨。
Although China participated the Paris Peace Conference (1919) as one of the victorious powers in the hopes of gaining back Germany’s rights in Shandong, powers paid no heed to China’s request. Instead, Germany’s rights in Shandong were transferred to Japan. This resulted in the protests of the Chinese citizens. At the same time, the incapability of the Beiyang government in defending China’s rights and submitting to the powers’ decision had infuriated the people.
結果，在1919年5月4日，北京多所院校的3000多名學生聚集於天安門，發起了聲勢浩大、群情激憤的示威運動，提出了「外爭國權，內懲國賊」、「取消二十一條」、「拒絕合約簽字」等口號。
As a result, on 4 May 1919, over 3000 students from Beijing gathered at the Tiananmen square and demonstrated with wrath. They shouted slogans like “Struggle for the sovereignty externally, get rid of the national traitors at home”, “Do away with the ‘Twenty-One Demands’” and “Don’t sign the Versailles Treaty”.
由於時任交通總長的曹汝霖有份把中國的權益讓予日本，因而被視為「賣國賊」，遊行隊伍於是直搗曹家宅，痛打了當時作為駐日公使的章宗祥，再火燒曹家宅。
As the leader of the Transportation Department, Cao Rulin was partly responsible in ceding the Shandong rights to Japan, therefore he was being seen as a national traitor. The demonstration originally performed at Tiananmen Square was then held at Cao’s house, in which protesters beat up Zhang Zongxiang, the Ambassador of Japan, and burned down Cao’s house.
在群眾壓力下，北洋政府於6月28日的原定簽約之日拒絕簽字。最終，山東問題留待1921-22年的華盛頓會議中才得到正式解決，日本在《解決山東問題懸案條約》中歸還山東權益予中國。
Under the pressured from the public, the Beiyang government refused to sign the Versailles Treaty on 28th June. At last, the Shandong problem was solved in the Washington Conference in 1921-22. Japan returned the Shandong rights to China in the ‘Treaty to resolve unsettled issues on Shandong’ .
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 巴黎和會對中國的不公平安排導致了中國的五四運動，同時亦刺激了中國共產主義的發展。因巴黎和會的三巨頭全屬資本主義國家，知識分子對於資本主義國家剝削中國的舉動感到憤恨，轉而研發共產主義，使共產主義思想在巴黎和會後迅速擴散。
The unfair arrangement of the Paris Peace Conference to China resulted in the May Fourth Movement in China and also stimulated the development of communism in China. As the Big Three of the Paris Peace Conference were all capitalist countries, the intellectuals were resentful of the capitalist countries’ actions of exploiting China, this made them turned to the communism so that the communist ideas spread quickly after the Paris Peace Conference.
Ø 在中國國民的激烈抗議，加上西方國家往後想限制日本的勢力情況下，列強於1921-22年舉行了華盛頓會議，迫使日本交還山東權益予中國。
In the midst of fierce protests by Chinese citizens and the desire of Western countries to restrict Japan’s influence, the powers held a meeting in Washington during 1921–22, forcing Japan to return its interest in Shandong to China.
Ø 五四運動由學生帶起，希望推動國家變強、變好，此精神成為了日後公民運動的典範，1989年的學生運動亦源自五四精神。
The May 4th Movement was initiated by students with the hope that the country can become stronger and better. This spirit became a model for future movements. The student movement in 1989 was also originated from the spirit of the May 4th Movement.
7. 中國共產黨成立(1921年) The formation of the Chinese Communist Party (1921)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
1910年代時，中國面對內憂外患，內有袁世凱及軍閥專政，外有列強欺壓，知識分子渴望救國，故積極研究不同的學說及主義。其中，陳獨秀、李大釗等早於1915年已經成立了《新青年》雜誌，就中國前途問題發表意見及進行積極的討論。
In the 1910s, China faced both internal and external problems. Internally, there were dictatorships by Yuan Shikai and warlords. Externally, there were opressions by the foreign powers. Intellectuals thus actively studied different ideas and doctrines in the hope to save the country. Among them, Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao had already established "New Youth" magazine as early as 1915 to express their views and discuss on China's future.
至1917年俄國十月革命成功推翻資本主義政權，建立世界第一個共產主義政權後，中國知識分子對共產主義更加是倍感興趣。及至1919年巴黎和會，中國以戰勝國身份出席巴黎和會，希望可以取回原本德國在中國山東的權益。然而，資本主義的三巨頭(英、美、法)竟將山東權益轉交了日本，使中國在會上遭受到戰敗的待遇。事件不單引致了5月4日的大規模遊行示威，同時，中國知識分子對於資本主義的所作所為更加感到氣憤及鄙視，摒棄資本主義，轉而研究共產主義。
Chinese intellectuals were more interested in the idea of communism after the October Revolution of Russia succeeded in overthrowing the capitalist regime in 1917 and established the world’s first communist regime. In the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, China attended the Conference as a victorious country, hoping that it would be able to regain its interests in Shandong from Germany. However, the Big Three of capitalism (British, U.S. and French) transferred the rights and interests of Shandong to Japan, causing China to receive treatment like a defeated country at the meeting. The incident not only led to a large-scale demonstration on May 4th, but Chinese intellectuals were even more angry and disdainful with the capitalists. This made them abandoned capitalism and turned to communism.
巴黎和會後，許多共產主義的相關組織如雨後春筍地湧現，例如「社會主義青年團」及「上海共產黨」等於1920年成立。至1921年，在陳獨秀、李達等人領導下，中國共產黨正式成立。
After the Paris Peace Conference, many communism-related organisations were established. For instance, the Socialist Youth League of China and Chinese Communist Party in Shanghai were established in 1920. In 1921, under the leadership by Chen Duxiu and Li Da, the Chinese Communist Party was officially established.
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 中國共產黨的成立標誌了中國政治的新發展，日後中國共產黨在毛澤東帶領下擊敗了國民黨，於1949年建立了中共政權。
The establishment of the Chinese Communist Party marked the new development of China’s politics. Later, the Chinese Communist Party defeated the Kuomintung under Mao’s ruling and established its power in 1949.
Ø 於中國共產黨建立初期，中國共產黨採取與國民黨進行合作的政策。共產國際積極協助中國共產黨，包括派馬林和越飛來華，與國民黨商討國共合作的事宜，其中1923年孫中山與越飛達成的《孫文越飛宣言》中，蘇聯願意放棄在華的不平等條約，以換取國民黨的好感，促成第一次國共合作(1923-27年)，使中國共產黨能夠在1920年代中茁壯成長。
In the early period of the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party, it cooperated with the Kuomintang. The Communist International provided assistance to the Communist Party of China, including sending Marin and Yuefei to China. It also discussed with the Kuomintang on the cooperation between the Kuomintang and the Communists. Among them, in the Sun–Joffe Manifesto reached by Sun Yat-sen and Yue Fei in 1923, the Soviet Union was willing to abolish the unequal treaty in China. The treaty led to the first cooperation between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party (1923-27), enabling the Communist Party of China to thrive in the mid-1920s.
8. 第一次國共內戰(1927-37年) First Chinese Civil War (1927-37)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
雖然在孫中山及共產國際的努力下，中國國民黨及共產黨於1923年開始進行合作。然而，兩黨之間存在有頗多分歧及矛盾，國民黨認為共產黨的工人運動及土地改革損害著支持國民黨的資本家及地主的利益，同時，國民黨對於共產黨勢力的持續增長也深感恐懼。
With the efforts paid by Sun Yat-sen and Communist International, the Kuomintang (KMT) and Communist Party of China (CPC) started to cooperate in 1923. However, huge divergence and contradiction existed among them. For instance, KMT thought that the labour movements and land reforms advocated by CPC harmed the interests of those who supported KMT, including capitalists and landlords. At the same time, KMT started to be suspicious of the growing power of CPC.
至1927年，共產國際代表羅易攜《五月指示》來華指導中國共產革命。《五月指示》內容是關於共產國際指示中國共產黨武裝農民、以低層工農領袖滲入國民黨等的建議。
In 1927, Manabendra Nath Roy, who was the representative of Communist International, got the ‘May Order from the International Communist’ and went to China so as to assist the development of communist revolution. The order included suggestions of Communist International to CPC, including arming the peasants and attracting the leaders of workers and peasants to join the party.
於6月1日，羅易出於信任而將《五月指示》給予國民黨於武漢的主事人汪精衛過目。汪精衛認為《五月指示》會令國民黨走向滅亡，令其開始決定分共。
On 1 June, Manabendra Nath Roy put his trust on Wang Jingwei, who was the KMT leader of Wuhan, and gave him the ‘May Order from the International Communist’. However, Wang thought that the KMT would come to an end under the instructions of such order. Eventually, he decided to separate the KMT and CPC.
然而，中共對於國民黨武漢分共的行動極為不滿，更於8月1日在南昌發動起義，與國民黨全面攤牌，國民黨亦血腥捕殺共產黨員，第一次國共合作正式決裂，標誌著第一次國共內戰開戰。
However, the CPC was greatly discontented with such arrangement. Those members then started a revolution in Nanchang on 1 August and fought against KMT. On the other hand, KMT killed the members of CPC in a violent way. The first cooperation of KMT and CPC thus broke-up. This marked the first Chinese Civil War.
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 第一次國共內戰中，國民黨不斷圍剿共產黨，其中1933-34年的五次大規模圍剿中，國民黨更動員近100萬軍隊作戰，迫使共產黨二萬五千里長征，至1937年共產黨黨員人數僅餘4萬人。
During the first Chinese Civil War, the Kuomindang kept attacking the Communist Party. In the 5 large-scale attacks during 1933-34, Kuomindang deployed nearly 1 million army. This resulted in the Long March of the Communist Party and the number of members of Kuomindang was reduced to 40,000 om 1937.
Ø 國共內戰提供了有利的形勢予日本，日本於1930年代初趁國民黨無瑕應對而頻頻發動事變，例如九一八事變(1931年)及一二八事變(1932年)以侵略中國。
The Chinese Civil War provided advantages for Japan. Japan kept invading China when the Kuomindang was busying fighting the Communist Party. For instance, Japan initiated the 18th September Incident (1931) and the 28th January Incident (1932).
Ø 至日本於1930年代中的侵略加劇，國民黨才被迫放棄「先安內，後攘外」的政策，開展了第二次國共合作，以對抗日本。
In the 1930s, Japan further invaded China which forced the Guomindang to give up the policy of "Resisting Foreign Aggression after Stabilizing the Country". This resulted in the second cooperation of KMT and CPC to resist Japan.
9. 七七事變July 7th Incident (1937年)
A. 發生背景及原因：Background and reasons:
日本軍國主義者早於1930年代初已經積極侵略中國，例如1931年九一八事變將野心放至中國東北地區，至1932年一二八事變又想染指中國上海一帶。在美國及國聯的調停下，日本於一二八事變後與中國簽訂了《上海停戰協定》，暫時緩和了日本的野心。然而，日本的野心從未退減。
Japanese militarists had aggressively invaded China as early as in the 1930s. For example, they set the ambition to the north-eastern region of China in the September 18th Incident in 1931. In the January 28th Incident in 1932, they wanted to invade the Shanghai area of China. Under the mediation of the United States and the League of Nations, Japan signed the "Shanghai Armistice Agreement" with China after the January 28th Incident, which temporarily eased Japan's aggressions. However, Japan’s ambition had never declined.
軍國主義者於1930年代中於日本政壇取得權力，進一步加強對中國的侵略。於1937年7月7日晚，駐中國的日軍以日本士兵失蹤為藉口，要求進入由中方管轄的地區進行搜查，但遭到中方拒絕。日軍遂於1937年7月8日凌晨向中方發動進攻。Militarists took great power in Japan during the mid-1930s that intensified Japan's invasion in China. Japanese army stationing in China used "finding missing Japanese soldiers" as pretext to request for entering areas that were controlled by China for investigation. China rejected, thus Japan initiated invasion to China in 8th July 1937
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 中日戰爭正式爆發，開展了8年的中日戰爭。
Official start of Sino-Japanese War that lasted for 8 years.
Ø 反映了國聯的無能，因中國多次向國聯求援，但國聯則要求日本暫時恢復會員國身份並合作解決爭端，但遭日本拒絕。理事會要求各會員國對日本進行個別制裁，但毫無成效，日本繼續侵略中國。
Reflected the failure of League of Nations: Japan rejected League of Nations' request to temporarily return as a member state in discussing solution to the conflict after China's request for help, while Japan continued its invasion though Council requested member nations to make sanction against Japan.
Ø 日本的侵略打破了國民黨「先安內，後攘外」的政策，迫使國民黨與共產黨進行第二次國共合作以對抗日本。然而，此導致共產黨有喘息的空間，更於中日戰爭期間不斷擴大勢力，最終能於戰後與國民黨分庭抗禮，甚至擊敗國民黨。
The Japanese invasion forced the Guomindang to give up the policy of "Resisting Foreign Aggression after Stabilizing the Country" and resulted in the second cooperation of KMT and CPC to resist Japan. However, this provided a chance for the Communist Party to expand its power and defeated Guomintang eventually.
10.中華人民共和國成立(1949年) Establishment of the People’s Republic of China
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
1937年中日戰爭前，中國共產黨在國民黨的不斷圍剿之下僅餘4萬黨員。然而，日本侵華迫使國民黨需要與共產黨合作，給予共產黨有喘息的機會。共產黨於戰時趁勢擴張勢力，大獲農民支持，黨員人數至1945年4月時已經高達121萬人。
Before the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the Communist Party only had 40,000 members under the attack of Kuomintang. However, Japan’s invasion of China forced the Kuomintang to cooperate with the Communist Party. This provided the Communist Party a break. During the war, the Communist Party actively expanded its scale and gained support from the peasants. The number of members reached 1.21 million by April 1945.
於二次世界大戰結束後，國民黨與共產黨就政權問題未能夠達成妥協，雙方於1946年正式爆發了第二次國共內戰。戰時，由於國民黨貪污腐敗，加上各地軍閥自擁兵權，未能有效進行合作，相反，當時共產黨形象清廉，深得中國廣大農民的支持，黨員人數至1947年12月已經倍增至270萬人。最終，共產黨在三大戰役(遼沈、淮海、平津戰役)均擊敗了國民黨，國民黨最終需要退守台灣，奠定了中國共產主義革命的勝利，中華人民共和國在1949年正式成立，革命得到開花結果。
After the end of the Second World War, the Guomintang and the Communist Party failed to reach a consensus over the issue of political power. The Second Chinese Civil War was started in 1976. During the war, Guomintang failed to cooperate due to the separation of power on top of its corruption problem. On the other hand, the image of Communist Party was clean which gained the support of the peasants. The number of members reached 2.7 million by December 1947. Finally, Guomingtang was defeated by the Communist Party in three major wars (Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin) and the former retreated to Taiwan台灣 afterwards. This marked the victory of Chinese Communist revolution. The People’s Republic of China was officially established in 1949, showing the success of the revolution. It is clear that this period was the reversing stage of Chinese communist revolution and the revolution was successful.
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 中華人民共和國的成立令中國政治體制由走向資本主義政體轉而走向共產主義政體。於建國後，毛澤東積極推動社會主義建設，令中國於1949年掀起了新的面貌。
The establishment of the People’s Republic of China made the political system of China changed from the capitalist political system to the communist political system.
Ø 國民黨敗走台灣後，中華人民共和國和中華民國的長期對峙局面出現，更維持至今。
After the Kuomingtang went Taiwan, the confrontation between People's Republic of China and the Republic of China started until now.
11.全國人民政治協商會議(1949年) The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (1949)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
中國共產黨在革命時期打著建立民主、多黨制的聯合政府的旗幟。早於1946年1月，中國共產黨與國民黨、中國民主同盟、中國青年黨等代表共同召開了政治協商會議，就建國方針進行討論。然而，由於談判未能達成共識，政治協商會議不歡而散，更開始了第二次國共內戰。
During the revolution, the Chinese Communist Party held the name of building a democratic, multi-party and coalition government. As early as January 1946, the Chinese Communist Party, the Kuomintang, the Chinese Democratic League, the China Youth Party and other representatives jointly held a political consultation meeting to discuss the principles of the country. However, as the negotiations failed to reach consensus, the political consultative meeting broke up and the Second Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party began.
於1949年中共建國後，中共開始籌組新的政治協商會議，允許不同黨派人士參與中國政治。至1949年9月，中國人民政治協商會議第一屆大會於北平召開，合共有662位來自46個單位的代表出席。
After the founding of the Chinese Communist Party in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party began to organize a new political consultation meeting that allow different political parties to participate in Chinese politics. In September 1949, the first session of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference was held in Peiping and a total of 662 delegates from 46 units attended.
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 於1954年全國人民代表大會成立以前，全國人民政治協商會議具行使國家權力的職權。然而，至1954年人大成立後，全國人民政治協商會議僅虛有其表，已經失去權力。
Prior to the establishment of the National People's Congress in 1954, the National People's Political Consultative Conference had the power to exercise state power. However, after the establishment of the National People's Congress in 1954, the National People's Political Consultative Conference had lost its power.
Ø 中共奉行以黨治國的方針，多黨制的特色僅在中共建國初期出現。後來，中共黨不斷肅清異見分子，剷除不同黨派的人士，使中國陷入極為專制及不容許反對聲音的時期。
The Chinese Communist Party had the principle of governing the country by the party. Multi-party system only could be seen at the beginning of the founding of the Chinese Communist Party. Later, the Chinese Communist Party kept removing different political parties, putting China into a period of extreme autocracy.
12.土地改革(1950-52年) Land Reform (1950-52)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
中共於建國後，隨即希望落實土地改革，從富農、地主手上將土地解放出來，分予貧農及佃農階級。於1950年6月召開的中國人民政治協商會議的第二次大會上，毛澤東和劉少奇等中共領袖決定要動員農民進行革命，透過農民批鬥地主的過程，啟發農民的階級覺悟，從而在政治上徹底打倒地主階級和孤立富農。1950年6月的《土地改革法》則是以此作為思維基礎而制定出來，並非以和平方式解放土地，而是由各地農民親自打倒地主階級而獲得。
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the Chinese Communist Party would like to to implement the land reform to free the land from rich peasants and landlords and distribute them to the poor peasants. At the second session of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference that held in June 1950, leaders of the Communist Party of China, such as Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi, decided to mobilize the peasants to carry out revolutions. Through the peasants fighting landlords, the class consciousness of the peasants was inspired to overthrow the landlord class and isolate rich peasants. The "Land Reform Law" of June 1950 was formulated based on this thinking. The land was not free by peaceful means but by the peasants defeating the landlord class by themselves.
B. 內容Content:
Ø 方針是依靠貧農、雇農，團結中農，中立富農，有步驟地有分別地消滅封建剝削制度，發展農業生產。
The idea was to rely on poor peasants, gather the middle peasants and isolate the rich peasants to abolish the old unfair system to facilitate development.
Ø 步驟首先是先派土改工作隊到農村組織農民成立協會，其次是劃分5個階級，繼而召開各地的訴苦大會，最後就沒收及分配土地。
The steps were first deliver working teams to the villiage to establish association, then 5 classes were established, meetings were called all over the country. Lastly, land was confiscated and reallocated.
C. 意義Significance:
Ø 土地改革成功解放了全國大量土地，3億貧農及佃農獲得了7億畝的土地及耕作器具。貧農及佃農獲得土地及器具後，生產力大大得到刺激，1952年的全國農業產值較1949年增長多達48.5%，糧食總產量亦較1949年增加達42.8%。
The Land Reform released a lot of land in the country. 30 million of poor peasants received 700 million acres of land and tools. After receiving the land and tools, the production was boosted. In 1982, the national agricultural output value increased by 48.5% compared with 1949. The total grain output also increased by 42.8% compared with 1949.
Ø 土地改革有助消滅了地主階級，同時訓練了一批新的農村幹部，並且提高了無產階級的革命意識。
The land reform facilitated the elimination of the landlord class. It also trained a group of new rural cadres and raised the revolutionary consciousness of the proletariat.
13.鎮壓反革命運動(1950-51年) Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries (1950-51)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
於國民黨敗走台灣後，仍然有大批殘餘分子有計劃地潛伏在中國大陸上，同時各地亦有許多的土匪、惡霸等，估計達300萬人，對中共的管治無可避免地構成了潛在的威脅。於1950年12月，中共開展了鎮壓反革命活動，在全國各地進行清查和鎮壓反革命分子。
After Kuominteng was defeated, remnants of the Kuomintang continued to gather intelligence, conduct sabotage, destroy transportation links, loot supplies, and entice armed rebellion through bandits and secret agents. It is estimated that there were around 3 million people which is a threat to the ruling of the Communist Party. In December 1950, the Communist Party launched the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries to clear those revolutionaries.
B. 內容Content:
Ø 打擊土匪、惡霸、特務、反動黨團骨幹分子、反動會道門頭子
Combat bandits, bully, spy, key elements of reactionary caucus, reactionary leaders
C. 意義Significance:
Ø 有助打擊國民黨殘餘勢力及所有反革命勢力，鞏固了中共政權。
This strengthened the ruling of the Communist Party by combatting against the remnant of Kuomingteng and the revolutionaries.
14.三反五反運動(1951-52年) Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns (1951-1952)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
為打擊資本主義階級及資本主義工商業，中共於1951年末開展了「三反」運動，及後又於1952年初發起「五反」運動。
To attack capitalist ideas and industries, the Communist Party started the Three-anti Campaign at the end of 1951 and the Five-anti Campaign in the early 1952.
B. 內容Content:
Ø 「三反」：反貪污、反浪費、反官僚主義，對象是政府內的幹部
Three-Anti: Anti-corruption, Anti-waste and Anti-bureaucracy. It aims at the government officials.
Ø 「五反」：反行賄、反偷稅漏稅、反盜騙國家資財、反偷工減料、反盜竊國家經濟情報，對象是工商界中的商人
Five-Anti: Anti-bribery, Anti-tax evasion, Anti-theft of state property, Anti-cheating on government contracts and Anti-stealing state economic information. It aims at the businessmen.
C. 意義Significance:
Ø 有助建立廉潔樸素的新風氣，提高共產黨的形象，鞏固執政黨的地位。
Facilitated the building of the anti-corruption idea which brought positive impact to the image of the Communist Party. This enhanced the ruling of the Communist Party.
Ø 有助使人民參與思想教育，清除舊社會遺留下來的不良風氣和惡習。
Enhanced the education of citizens and got rid of the bad habits from the old society.
15.第一個五年計劃 The First Five Year Plan
Ø 詳情請參考常規班筆記。
For details, please refer to Regular Course notes.
16.大躍進 Great Leap Forward
Ø 詳情請參考常規班筆記。
For details, please refer to Regular Course notes.
17.調整政策 Readjustment
Ø 詳情請參考常規班筆記。
For details, please refer to Regular Course notes.
18.文化大革命 Cultural Revolution
Ø 詳情請參考常規班筆記。
For details, please refer to Regular Course notes.
19.上山下鄉運動(1968年) Down to the Countryside Movement (1968)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
文革於1966年開始後，紅衛兵四處批鬥，全國各地陷入了政治混亂、忽視生產、學校停課的局面。大量知識青年於城市中百無聊賴，浪費時間同人力資源。
After the start of Cultural Revolution in 1966, the Red Guard started to attack others which resulted in situations like chaos, stop of production, school closure. Many knowledgeable youth got nothing to do. This caused a waste of time and human power.
毛澤東於1968年12月在《人民日報》中發表指示，指「知識青年到農村去，接受貧下中農的再教育，很有必要。」，正式掀起了全國知識青年的「上山下鄉運動」。於文革期間，高達1600萬知識青年到農村協助生產同建設，佔了城市多達1/10的人口。
In the December 1968, Mao Zedong expressed in the People’s Daily that “There is an urgent need for the youth to go to the rural areas to receive education from the peasants”. This officially started the Down to the Countryside Movement. During Cultural Revolution, nearly 16 million of youth (nearly 1/10 of the total population) went to the countryside to help with the production and infrastructure.
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 1600萬知識青年到農村或偏遠地區勞動，協助修橋鋪路、開墾耕作，有助中國農村的基礎建設及農業發展。
The ‘sent-down youth’ had moved to rural or remote areas to work during the revolution. They helped the construction of infrastructures and farming, this promoted development in the countryside.
Ø 知識青年在農村地區辦學講課，大大推動了基礎教育的發展，使小學入學率由1963年的57%增至1976年的96%，對中國的基礎教育發展而言起了積極性的作用。
The knowledgeable ‘sent-down youth’ set up schools in the rural areas, this facilitated the development of basic education. The primary school enrolment rate increased from 57% in 1963 to 96% in 1976. Their contribution to basic education in China was significant.
20.乒乓外交(1971年) Ping Pong Diplomacy (1971)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
文革初期，紅衛兵衝擊外交領事館及國內仇外情緒高漲使中國外交陷入困局。中共希望透過外交關係以提高中國的國際地位，並且爭取聯合國的席位。同時，尋求在美國大選中連任的美國總統尼克遜希望透過改善中美關係，從而取得更多選民的支持。
In the early period of the Cultural Revolution, the attack of consulates by the Red Guards and hatred towards foreigners made China’s diplomacy entered a deadlock. The CCP attempted strengthen the international status by diplomatic relationships. It also hoped to fight for a seat in the United Nations. At the same time, the U.S. President Richard Nixon, who seek to be re-elected in the U.S. presidential election, would like to gain more support by improving the relationship between China and the United States.
中國乒乓球隊參與了在1971年3-4月於日本名古屋舉行的第31屆世界乒乓球錦標賽，恰巧在比賽期間，美國選手科恩誤上了中國隊所乘搭的巴士，而中國選手莊則棟主動上前握手、寒暄，並送了一塊織錦予科恩。此一幕被記者捕捉，並且經過報導後成為了全球要聞。幾日後，中共就邀請了在名古屋的美國乒乓球隊到中國，而美國又於稍後邀請了中國乒乓球隊到訪美國，史稱「乒乓外交」。
The Chinese table tennis team participated in the 31st World Table Tennis Championships held in Nagoya, Japan, in March-April 1971. During the match, the American player Cowan got on the bus of the Chinese team accidentally. Chinese player Zhuang Zedong took the initiative to shake his hand with Cohn. He also gave a silk print to Cowan. This was captured by reporters and became a major global news. After a few days, the CCP invited the American table tennis team in Nagoya to China. The United States later also invited the Chinese table tennis team to visit the United States. It is known as the "Ping Pong Diplomacy."
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 乒乓外交打破了中、美長達20多年的冰封局面，為中美關係正常化鋪路。於1972年，尼克遜到訪中國，成為首位訪問中國的美國總統。至1979年，中美正式建交。
The Ping Pong Diplomacy broke the deadlock between China and the United States which lasted for more than 20 years. It was the base for the relationship between the two countries. In 1972, Nixon visited China and became the first U.S. President who visited China. In 1979, there was a formal establishment of diplomatic relations between China and the United States.
Ø 乒乓外交有助改善中國與資本主義國家間的關係，日本也於1972年與中國正式建交。此外，中國與外國關係的改善，有助中國爭取成為聯合國的成員國。於1971年10月，中華人民共和國取代中華民國，成為了聯合國的合法代表。
The Ping Pong Diplomacy contributed to the improving relationship between China and capitalist countries. Japan also established formal relations with China in 1972. Other than that, the improved relationship between China and foreign countries helped China to become a member state of the United States. In October 1971, the People’s Republic of China replaced the Republic of China and became the legitimate representative of the United Nations.
21.改革開放 Reform and revolution
Ø 詳情請參考常規班筆記。
For details, please refer to Regular Course notes.
22.六四事件(1989年) The June Fourth Incident (1989)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
1989年4月15日，前中共總書記胡耀邦因病逝世，大批北京大學生與市民在北京天安門舉行悼念活動。然而，是次活動在部分大學生的主導下，演變成為要求政府解決貪污、失業、通脹等問題的運動。
On April 15 1989, Hu Yaobang, the former General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, died. A large number of Beijing university students and citizens held a memorial service in Tiananmen Square. However, under the lead of some univeristy students, this became a movement that urged the government to solve social problems such as corruption, unemployment and inflation.
於民運初期，以時任中共總書記趙紫陽為首的溫和派希望透過和平談判的方式化解。但隨著部分學生於5月初發起了更激進的絕食行動，促使了民運在全國多省獲得呼應，當時以鄧小平及時任總理李鵬為首的強硬派就決定以武力方式解決。至5月20日，李鵬宣佈北京實施戒嚴，並調動30萬解放軍入京。至6月4日，解放軍以武力方式清場，導致大量學生傷亡，史稱「六四事件」。
During the early stage of the movement, Zhao Ziyang, then General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, hoped to resolve the movement through peaceful negotiations. However, with some students launching hunger strike in early May, the democratic movement was spread to the other part of the country. At that time, some hardliners such as Deng Xiaoping and Li Peng decided to solve the problem by force. On the 20th May, Li Peng announced the imposition of martial law and mobilized 300,000 People’s Liberation Army to Beijing. On June 4, the People’s Liberation Army ended the movement by force, resulting in a large number of casualties. It was known as the “June Fourth Incident”.
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 在「六四事件」後，主張經濟改革的總書記趙紫陽被迫下台，改革派勢力受到重大的打擊。縱然鄧小平始終不渝地堅持市場改革的路向，但以陳雲為首的保守勢力則將近年來中國的通脹、貪腐、政治動亂等問題歸咎於改革開放，最終使改革被緊急叫停。After that, Zhao Ziyang趙紫陽, the General Secretary who advocated economic reforms, was forced to step down. The strength of the reformers thus greatly reduced. Despite Deng’s insistence on market reforms, the reform was stopped by conservatives led by Chen Yun as they thought that problems like inflation, corruption and political instability in recent years were all caused by Reform and Opening up.
Ø 事件引起了西方國家對中國的強烈不滿，以西方為首的國家聯合經濟制裁中國。
The June Fourth Incident in 1989 provoked dissatisfaction of the West. They jointly imposed economic sanctions against China.
23.鄧小平南巡(1992年) Sothern Tour of Deng Xioping (1992)
A. 背景及原因Background and reasons:
自1980年代末改革開放帶來的負面影響逐漸浮面，包括嚴重的通貨膨脹、大量工人下崗、貪污、政治動亂等等，加上同一時間進行改革的蘇聯日趨分崩離析，以陳雲為首的保守勢力暫停了改革開放，令改革開放進入了治理整頓時期(1989-92年)。
The negative impacts brought by the Reform and Opening Up since the 1980s started to appear. For instance, problems like serious inflation, unemployment of workers, corruption and political instabilities. At the same time, USSR that was undergoing reform was also started to collapse. Thus, the conservative power started to slow down the Reform and Opening Up and entered into the period of suspension (1989-1992).
儘管作為總設計師的鄧小平堅持要進行改革開放，但由於中共領導層對於叫停改革開放的呼聲高漲，改革開放不得不暫時停止。於治理整頓時期，中共減少投放國內基建開支，而且外國的投資亦相應下降。
Although Deng insisted on the continuation of the Reform and Opening Up, the Reform and Opening Up was forced to stop because of the inclination of the majority of the leaders towards a pause over it. During the period of suspension, the Communist Party reduced its expense in infrastructure and foreign investment.
然而，鄧小平對於改革開放的堅持始終不渝。其於1992年南巡時，大力表彰深圳、廣州等地實行市場經濟的成效，並且多次強調社會主義也可有市場經濟。Deng insisted on the continuation of the Reform and Opening Up. During his southern tour南巡 in 1992, he strongly promoted local governments like Shenzhen and Guangzhou ones for their achievement in implementing market economy. Also, he stressed many times that socialism and market economy are not mutually exclusive.
B. 意義Significance:
Ø 鄧小平的南巡受到國內外媒體的大肆報告，扭轉原有國內的保守局面，結束了三年半的「治理整頓」時期。往後，「社會主義市場經濟」得到確立，發展方向與方針也明確起來，中國遂進入改革開放的新階段，逐步落實市場經濟。
Many local and international media reported his tour, changing people’s conservative thought. The three-and-a-half-year ‘period of suspension’ ended. After that, “socialist market economy” was established, as well as the direction and guiding principle. China then entered a new stage of reform and opening up and implemented the market economy gradually.
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