注意：此題目原是DSE歷屆試題，但為免侵犯版權，題目經過修改，同學可以按試題之年份及題號自行查閱原題目。以下內容乃K.W.Ho之補習教材，於課堂教授，內容乃配合K.W.Ho之答題方法及風格所製作，同時內容可能有錯誤之處以供在課堂上糾正。非補習學生在未有得到課堂教學的情況下錯誤使用，恕不負責，同學請敬請留意。
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(a) 歸納兩種維持和平的努力(4分)
第一是推動裁軍。資料指諾貝爾和平獎是頒授予推動「裁減常規軍隊」的人士，例如1907年路易．雷諾「對促成兩次海牙會議起重要作用」和1909年奧古斯特．貝爾納舟「於兩次海牙會議積極倡議和平」因而獲取諾貝爾和平獎。可見，國際社會於一次大戰前積極推動裁軍，嘗試緩和軍備競賽以締造和平局面。
第二是成立和平組織。資料中，許多諾貝爾和平獎得獎者均是和平組織的創始人或主要成員，例如弗雷德里克．帕西是法國和平會會長及各國議會聯盟的創始人、蘭德爾．克里默是國際仲裁聯盟秘書等。可見，國際社會成立了許多維和組織，試圖促進國家之間的友好，解決衝突，以維持和平。
第三是推動談判。資料中，美國總統西奧多．羅斯福就因「於1904-5年的日俄戰爭中進行和平談判」而獲諾貝爾和平獎。可見，國際社會在國際衝突中會嘗試居中斡旋，調解糾紛，使維和得到實現。
第四是舉行和平會議。資料指諾貝爾和平獎是頒授予「舉行及倡議和平會議而貢獻心力者」，例如1907年路易．雷諾「對促成兩次海牙會議起重要作用」和1909年奧古斯特．貝爾納舟「於兩次海牙會議積極倡議和平」因而獲取諾貝爾和平獎。可見，國際社會於一次大戰前積極舉行和平會議以締造和平的環境。
(推動裁軍同舉行和平會議之線索相同，兩個論點只選其一)
(a) 漫畫家對和平的前景持什麼看法？(3分)
漫畫家認為和平能夠輕易締造，前景樂觀。
漫畫家描繪巴爾幹危機時，英國外相猶如童話故事「睡美人」中的白馬王子，「挺身相救，親吻公主，使她脫離魔咒之害」。可見，漫畫家認為英國能夠輕易調解巴爾幹危機，如同童話故事的王子解救公主般，使和平得到救贖。
漫畫中的文字『愛德華．格雷爵士(以外交辭令向「和平」說：「小姐，你要是願意的話，請你醒來」』。可見，漫畫家認為只要英國出面調停巴爾幹危機，和平就能夠在英國的影響力下輕易實現。
漫畫出版自「某英國雜誌的漫畫」，而漫畫內將英國描繪成解救公主的白馬王子，更有白鴿在旁飛翔，形象十分正面。可見，漫畫家美化英國在解決巴爾幹危機時的重要性，認為英國能輕易帶來和平，前景樂觀。
(b) 你認為1900-14年間，維持和平的趨勢是否較軍事對抗的趨勢更強？(8分)
我不同意此說。
儘管國際社會持續有進行維持和平的嘗試。
資料G中，國際社會創辦了許多維和機構，例如各國議會聯盟、國際和平常設局、國際仲裁聯盟等等，又促成了兩次海牙會議的出現，在促進和平一事上努力不懈。至1910年代，國際和平常設局又「協調及指導不同國家的和平運動」。可見，國際社會在維和一事上的努力有增無減，不遺餘力，趨斷不斷。
資料H中，漫畫家將英國外相描繪成童話故事「睡美人」中的白馬王子，「挺身相救，親吻公主[和平]，使她脫離魔咒之害」。可見，漫畫家認為英國在巴爾幹危機時挺身而出，調停糾紛，為歐洲帶來和平。英國主動介入危機，希望維持和平，並不想以軍事方式對抗。
就我所知，列強亦採取了殖民地諒解的方式以維持和平。在1900年法國與意大利簽訂《法意諒解》，成功調停法國和意大利的殖民地糾紛後，愈來愈多國家採取諒解的方式解決問題，包括英法於1904年締結《摯誠協定》及英俄於1907年締結《英俄協約》。可見，殖民地諒解成為了列強解決殖民地糾紛的常用方法，多國間的殖民地糾紛得到解決，有助促進和平。
列強亦持續舉行和平會議及簽訂和平條約以維持和平。例如在第一次摩洛哥危機時舉行了「阿爾及西勒會議」(1906年)以解決德、法的糾紛，及後第二次摩洛哥危機時德法又簽訂了《非斯條約》以解決爭端。可見，列強亦持續以會議及條約的方式去調停問題，以免戰爭出現。
然而，軍事對抗的趨勢更強。
參考資料H，資料簡介的部分指出1912年時「巴爾幹危機仍未完結」，可見當時的國家利用軍事的方式作出對抗，拒絕以和平方式解決爭端，結果使危機、戰爭出現。
就我所知，德國與法、俄的軍事對抗愈趨嚴重。德國於1905年制定施里芬計劃，以法、俄為假想敵，法、俄也分別於制定了十七號計劃(1913年)及十九號計劃(1912年)聯合對抗德國。可見，雙方互相作出軍事對抗，軍事對立的形勢隨著作戰計劃的制定而變得更加嚴峻。
德國與法、英的軍事對抗同樣也日趨激烈。自20世紀初起，英、德出現了激烈的海軍競賽，英國更採取「二比一政策」以回應德國的海軍擴張。更甚，為了防範德國的海軍威脅，英海於1912年簽訂《英法海軍協定》，英國防守英倫海峽，法國防守地中海。可見，德國與法、英的軍事對立愈趨升級，法、英更聯合對付德國，使軍事對抗的格局顯而易見。
德、奧與俄、塞的軍事對抗也愈趨熾熱。在1908年奧匈吞併波黑時，德國支持奧匈與俄、塞對抗，當時局勢已經極為嚴峻，大戰幾乎一觸即發。至1914年奧匈皇儲被塞爾維亞極端民族主義分子刺殺後，德國更開出「空白支票」支持奧匈，俄國也第一個國家總動員以支持塞。可見，雙方的軍事行動日趨強硬，最終塞拉耶佛危機也在雙方的軍事對抗底下演變成世界大戰。
相比之下，就巴爾幹戰爭而言，儘管英國和其他國家有介入調停，迫使了保加利亞和塞爾維亞簽訂了《倫敦條約》。然而，衝突的雙方均對條約不滿，第二次巴爾幹戰爭隨即再起。可見，巴爾幹小國傾向以軍事對抗的方式解決問題多於以和平條約的方式，戰爭接踵而至。
相比之下，就一次大戰而言，在塞拉耶佛危機時，雙方均未有積極進行維持和平的嘗試。相反，各國勇於採取軍事行動，例如奧匈在塞爾維亞接受大部分最後通牒的條款的情況底下仍然執意開戰；德國迅速實行施里芬計劃；法國總統和總理到訪俄國，明確表示支持俄國對抗德、匈。可見，各國均採取強硬的軍事政策，捨棄了和平方式解決問題，軍事對抗的趨勢明顯較維持和平的趨勢更加強烈。
(a) Conclude two types of peacekeeping efforts. (4 marks)
The first type was to promote disarmament. From the Source, the Nobel Peace Prize was to be awarded to people who worked for ‘the abolition or reduction of standing armies’, including Louis Renault who won the prize in 1907 as ‘a significant contributor to the two Hague Conferences’, and Auguste Beernaert who got the prize in 1909 as an ‘active peace promoter at the two Hague Conferences’. It was clear that before the First World War, the international community made active efforts to promote disarmament in an attempt to slow down the arms race and create peace.
The second type was to establish peacekeeping organizations. From the Source, many Nobel Peace Prize winners were either founders or key members of peacekeeping organizations, including Frederic Passy who was the President of the French Peace Society and a founder of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, and William Cremer who served as Secretary of International Arbitration League. It was clear that many peacekeeping organizations were established among the international community to promote friendliness among nations and resolve conflicts with the ultimate goal of maintaining peace.
The third type was to facilitate negotiations. From the Source, US President Roosevelt earned himself the Nobel Peace Prize for ‘negotiating peace in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-05’. It was clear that members of the international community would attempt at negotiating and mediating conflicts in order to establish peace.
The fourth type was to hold peace conferences. From the Source, the Nobel Peace Prize was to be awarded to those who worked for ‘the holding and promotion of peace congresses’, including Louis Renault who won the prize in 1907 as ‘a significant contributor to the two Hague Conferences’, and Auguste Beernaert who got the prize in 1909 as an ‘active peace promoter at the two Hague Conferences’. It was clear that before the First World War, the international community made active efforts to hold peace conferences in order to create a peaceful climate.
(The same clue is used for promoting disarmament and holding peace conferences. Students are advised to choose either of the two arguments.)
(b) What was the cartoonist’s view towards the prospect of peace? (3 marks)
The cartoonist thought that peace could be easily achieved and he was optimistic about the prospect.
When depicting the Balkan Crisis, the cartoonist portrayed the British Prime Minister as Prince Charming of the fairy tale ‘Sleeping Beauty’ who came to the princess’ rescue to ‘liberate her from the evil spell by kissing her’. Apparently, the cartoonist considered it as easy as the prince saving the princess in the fairy tale for Britain to resolve the Balkan Crisis and bring about peace.
The caption of the cartoon indicated that ‘Sir Edward Grey’ told Peace in ‘the language of diplomacy’ to wake up if she pleased. Clearly,the cartoonist thought that peace was something that could be easily achieved as long as Britain was willing to make mediation efforts.
The Source was a ‘cartoon published in a British magazine’ and Britain was portrayed as Prince Charming saving the princess with a pigeon flying around them, all of which displayed a very positive image of Britain. Apparently, the cartoonist magnified the importance of Britain in resolving the Balkan Crisis and thought Britain could bring about peace easily, being very optimistic about the prospect of peace.
(c) Do you agree that the trend of peacekeeping was stronger than that of military rivalry in the period 1900-14? (8 marks)
I do not agree.
It was true that there were continued peacekeeping efforts among the international community.
From Source G, the international community demonstrated its untiring commitment to promoting peace by establishing many peacekeeping organizations such as the Inter-Parliamentary Union, Permanent International Peace Bureau and International Arbitration League, and facilitating the Two Hague Conferences. In the 1910s, the Permanent International Peace Bureau also ‘coordinated and directed peace movements of different countries’. Clearly, the international community became increasingly involved in and went all out for peacekeeping, contributing to a strong trend of peacekeeping.
From Source H, the cartoonist portrayed the British Prime Minister as Prince Charming of the fairy tale ‘Sleeping Beauty’ who came to the princess’ rescue to ‘liberate her from the evil spell by kissing her’. Apparently, the cartoonist thought that Britain stepped forward to resolve conflicts during the Balkan Crisis and brought about peace in Europe. Its proactive involvement in the crisis showed that Britain wanted peace and tried to avoid military confrontation.
From my own knowledge, the powers also used colonial ententes as a way to maintain peace. After the success of the Franco-Italian entente in 1900 that put an end to the signatories’ colonial disputes, it became increasingly common for nations to resolve their conflicts through ententes, as exemplified by the Entente Cordiale between Britain and France in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907. It was clear that colonial ententes became a common way for the powers to resolve their colonial disputes and the settlement of such conflicts did contribute to peace.
The powers also held peace conferences and signed peace treaties to maintain peace. For example, during the First Moroccan Crisis, the Algeciras Conference was held in 1906 to settle the disputes between Germany and France. As for the Second Moroccan Crisis, the two countries also signed the Treaty of Fes to resolve conflicts. It was clear that conferences and treaties were ways continuously adopted by the powers to resolve conflicts and prevent wars.
However, the trend of military rivalry was still stronger.
From Source H, the introduction to the Source suggested that ‘the Balkan Crisis was still ongoing’ in 1912. It was clear that nations in the period concerned opted for violence instead of peaceful settlement at the time of confrontation and this contributed to more crises and wars.
From my own knowledge, Germany had increasingly fierce military rivalry with France and Russia. Germany formulated the Schlieffen Plan against France and Russia in 1905, while France and Russia also made the Plan 17 (1913) and Plan 19 (1912) respectively that marked their coalition against Germany. It was clear that there was military confrontation between the two sides and it was intensified by the war plans they made.
There was also intensifying military rivalry between Germany and the coalition of France and Britain. Since the beginning of the 20th century, there had been a fierce navy arms race between Britain and Germany. Britain maintained a cruiser superiority of 2:1 over Germany in response to the latter’s naval build-up. In addition, in order to guard itself against German naval threats, Britain signed with France in 1912 the Anglo-Franco Naval Agreement, under which Britain shall focus on matching Germany in the English Channel while France shall focus its efforts on the Mediterranean Sea. It was clear that Germany had escalating military confrontation with France and Britain, which even formed a coalition that underlined the rivalry between the two sides.
Germany and Austria-Hungary also had heightening military rivalry with Russia and Serbia. During Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908, Germany supported Austria-Hungary against Russia and Serbia and their tension was so great that a world war could happen at any moment. After the assassination of the heir presumptive to the throne of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian extreme nationalist in 1914, Germany even offered a blank cheque to show its support for Austria-Hungary while Russia became the first country to declare general mobilization in support of Serbia. It was clear that military actions of both sides escalated steadily and their rivalry even turned the Sarajevo Incident into a world war.
Upon comparison, in terms of the Balkan Wars, it was true that Britain and other nations made mediation efforts that forced Bulgaria and Serbia into signing the Treaty of London; however, both sides were discontented with the treaty and the Second Balkan War broke out shortly afterwards. The preference of Balkan countries for military rivalry over peace treaty eventually led to a succession of wars.
Upon comparison, in terms of the First World War, during the Sarajevo Incident, both sides made no peacekeeping attempts and were instead eager for military actions. For example, Austria-Hungary insisted on starting a war despite the fact that Serbia accepted most terms of the ultimatum; Germany implemented the Schlieffen Plan swiftly; and the President and Prime Minister of France visited Russia to show their support against Germany and Austria-Hungary. It was clear that many nations adopted a hard-line military approach rather than a peaceful one and the trend of their military rivalry was apparently stronger than that of peacekeeping.
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