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原題目題號：DSE-2012-Essay-04
「1919-23年的巴黎和約目的在於維持和平；但它卻成為第二次世界大戰爆發的重要成因。」評論此說能否成立。
背景 一次大戰後，列強召開了巴黎和會以商討戰後問題。 // 架構 雖然列強成功制定了多條的條約，希望藉此嚴懲德國、滿足意大利對領土的渴求、落實「民族自決」的原則及成立國聯以維持和平。然而，基於上述目的造成的反效果，卻埋下了二次大戰爆發的伏線。 // 立場 因此，題目所言確能成立。
主旨句 其一，巴黎和約嚴懲德國以削弱德國國力，目的是為了維持和平。 // 問題A的內容巴黎和會首要解決的問題就是阻止德國再次發動戰爭，因此，列強制定苛刻的《凡爾賽條約》，以削弱德國的國力，避免德國再次挑起戰端。例如於條約中，德國被迫賠款330億美元、裁減陸軍人數至10萬人、割讓約10%的土地和人口。此外，於對奧地利的《聖澤門條約》中也禁止德國與奧地利合併，以防德、奧勢力再次匯聚起來，以致戰爭再起。 // 小結可見，巴黎和約致力削弱德國的國力，目的是為了維持和平。
主旨句 然而，長遠而言，和約挑起了德國的復仇情緒，成為了二次大戰爆發的重要原因。 // 問題B的內容由於巴黎和會對於德國的懲罰極度苛刻，德國甚至需要承擔全部的戰爭罪責，結果導致德人大為不滿，產生出復仇情緒。更甚，新成立的威瑪共和政府一上台便簽訂了喪權辱國的《凡爾賽條約》，使其一上台便不受歡迎。日後，希特拉打著推翻《凡爾賽條約》的口號而得到人民支持，於1933年上台。其上台後逐步推翻《凡爾賽條約》，先於1935年重新擴軍，及後不斷發動侵略，最終德國於1939年突襲波蘭，要求取得於和約中失去的但澤市，結果使二次大戰在德國報復下爆發。 // 小結可見，巴黎和約未能有效維持和平，更為二次大戰爆發埋下伏線。
其二，巴黎和約中將部分土地分予意大利，目的也是為了維持和平。意大利一直很希望爭取更多的領土，故早於1911年時已經為了取得的黎波里而對鄂圖曼帝國宣戰。及後，於一次大戰期間，由於英、法於1915年倫敦會議中以領土作為報酬，承諾戰後給予阜姆、提洛爾等地予意大利，利誘意大利轉投至協約國陣營，對德、奧開戰。因此，為避免意大利因不獲土地而挑起爭端，列強於和約中分配土地予意大利，例如《聖澤門條約》時將提洛爾和伊斯特里亞給予意大利，試圖滿足意大利對領土的渴求，避免衝突再起。可見，巴黎和會嘗試滿足意大利對領土的渴望，目的是維持和平。
然而，和約未能有效滿足意大利的渴求，更有助日後大戰的爆發。由於列強於和會中未有完全兌現1915年倫敦會議的諾言，意大利僅獲得提洛爾和伊斯特里亞等地，但卻未能取得阜姆和達爾馬西亞，因此使意人對政府的無能極為失望，有助強勢的墨索里尼於1922年上台，日後積極發動侵略，以獲取更多領土，例如1924年強迫南斯拉夫交出阜姆等。至1930年代中，墨索里尼的野心更盛，先於1935-36年侵略阿比西尼亞，及後又於1939年入侵阿爾巴尼亞，最終成為大戰爆發的侵略國之一。可見，和約未能滿足意大利的渴求，導致了意大利極為不滿，日後不斷發動侵略，有助二次大戰的爆發。
其三，巴黎和約中落實的「民族自決」原則是希望解決民族衝突，避免衝突再起。由於一次大戰的導火線塞拉耶佛危機(1914年)是由民族主義衝突所引發，列強為了再避免各民族之間為了尋求獨立而爆發戰爭，故於和會中確立了「民族自決」的原則，讓同一民族的人民建立獨立國家，例如於《聖澤門條約》將奧匈的部分領土分割出來，成立捷克斯洛伐克和南斯拉夫兩個國家；《賽佛爾條約》中准許埃及和蘇丹脫離土耳其，成為新的獨立國家。「民族自決」的提出有助減少小數民族為了尋求獨立而再次挑起戰端，目的是為維持和平。可見，和約中落實「民族自決」的原則是為了維持和平。
然而，長遠而言，和約中「民族自決」的原則大大有助戰爭的爆發。由於「民族自決」的原則存有頗多的漏洞，因和會忽視勢力均衡的重要性，建立了許多弱小的民族小國於德、蘇之間，結果，這些民族小國容易成為侵略國的目標，其中1939年時，德國就兵不血刃吞併了捷克，及後又突襲波蘭，導致了二次大戰爆發。此外，「民族自決」的原則存有極大的不公，因德國作為戰敗國，被排除出「民族自決」的原則外，列強更把日耳曼人居住的德國領土割讓予其他國家，例如擁有300萬人居住的蘇台德區交予捷克斯洛伐克，結果導致了德國的強烈不滿，更成為1938年重新吞併蘇台德區的藉口，有助侵略及大戰的爆發。可見，雖然「民族自決」的提供是為了維持和平，但卻有助大戰的爆發。
其四，巴黎和約中提出成立國際聯盟，目的也是為了維持和平。一次大戰前，國際社會缺乏具系統性及權威性的方式以解決衝突，因此使戰爭屢起，例如兩次巴爾幹戰爭及一次大戰等。因此，於美國提出的「和平十四點」中，其中一項建議就是成立維和機構，以調解國際糾紛，維持和平。國際聯盟(1920年)因此而應運而生，設立會員大會以提供溝通的渠道予會員國，以促進各國關係。此外，也設有國際法庭，通過法律以解決國際糾紛，以仲裁紛爭。可見，和約中提議成立國聯，目的是為維持和平。
然而，和會成立的國聯成效有限，更因其於1930年代無力阻止侵略而助長了大戰的爆發。和會雖然成立了國聯以解決國際糾紛，但由於國聯缺乏軍隊，加上美、蘇等大國長期均沒有加入國聯，因此令國聯的維和能力有限。往後，更因國聯此等的缺陷而助長了侵略的出現，例如日本於1931年發動「九一八事變」侵略中國，雖然其後經過調查證實日本的行動是侵略，但國聯只能譴責日本及對之進行經濟制裁，無助於阻止侵略。更正正基於國聯的無能，揭示出列強缺乏有效的方式阻止侵略，因而使侵略國更趨囂張跋扈，其中日本就於1937年全面侵略中國(七七事變)，觸發亞洲戰事。可見，和約希望成立國聯以維持和平，但最終卻因國聯的無能而助長了大戰爆發。
總括而言，列強制定了巴黎和約，希望透過嚴懲德國、滿足意大利對領土的渴求、落實「民族自決」的原則及成立國聯以維持和平，但不幸地，此等目的未能有效實現，更埋下了二次大戰爆發的伏線。
‘The Paris Peace Settlement of 1919-23 was aimed at preserving peace, but it turned out to be an important factor of the Second World War.’ Comment on the validity of this statement.
After World War 1, the powers held the Paris Peace Conference to discuss on the post-war settlements. The powers successfully formed numerous treaties in the hope of punishing Germany, satisfying the desire of Italy for territories, establishing the Principle of National Self-determination, and forming the League of Nations. However, adverse impacts were created to the above aims and sowed seed to the outbreak of WW2. Hence, the statement was totally valid.
Firstly, the Paris Peace Treaty aimed at reducing German national strength and preserving peace by severely punishing Germany. The most important question that the Paris Peace Conference had to deal with was to deter Germany from initiating wars again. Therefore, the powers enacted the harsh ‘Treaty of Versailles’ 凡爾賽條約 in the hope of reducing the national strength of Germany and preventing her from creating other problems. For instance, in the treaty, Germany was forced to repay an indemnity of USD $33 billion, reduced the size of army to 100 thousands, and ceded 10% land and population. Apart from that, the ‘Treaty of St. Germain’ 聖澤門條約 signed with Austria also prohibited her from annexing with Germany. Such act was to prevent the power of Germany and Austria from joining together again and leading to another war. This showed that the Paris Peace Treaty aimed at reducing the national strength of Germany so as to preserve peace.
However, in a long term, the Paris Peace Treaty sparked off the German desire to take revenge, and this became a major reason for the outbreak of WW2. The punishments of Paris Peace Conference to Germany was very harsh, and Germany even had to bear all war responsibility全部的戰爭罪責. Hence, Germans were greatly discontented and they had the desire to take revenge. Worse still, the newly formed Weimar Republic威瑪共和政府 had to signed the humiliating ‘Treaty of Versailles’ when she first rose to power, hence, she failed to obtain support from the people. Later, Hitler gained popularity with his advocation in scrapping the Treaty of Versailles. He rose to power in 1933 and gradually overthrew the Treaty. He first expanded the army in 1935 and initiated numerous invasions. Eventually, Germany demanded to get back Danzig但澤市 which was lost in the Paris Peace Treaty and assaulted Poland波蘭 in 1939. The revenge took by Germany sparked off the WW2. This showed that the Paris Peace Treaty failed to preserve peace, instead, it sowed seed to the outbreak of WW2.
Secondly, the Paris Peace Treaty gave some territories to Italy so as to preserve peace. Italy wanted to get more territories since long time ago. Therefore, as early as in 1911, she declared war to Ottoman Empire鄂圖曼帝國宣戰 in the hope of getting Tripoli的黎波里. Later during WW1, Britain and France promised to give land to Italy as her remuneration in the London Conference倫敦會議 in 1915. They promised that Italy would be granted with lands like Fiume阜姆 and Tyrol提洛爾 after the war. The reason for taking such action was to lure Italy to join the side of the Allied and fought against Germany and Austria. Therefore, in order to avoid Italy from being discontented for not receiving any land, the powers distributed territories to her in the Paris Peace Conference. For instance, in the ‘Treaty of St. Germain’ 《聖澤門條約》, Tyrol提洛爾 and Istria伊斯特里亞 were given to Italy so as to try to fulfill her desire for territories and avoid conflicts. This showed that the Paris Peace Conference tried to preserve peace by satisfying the desire of Italy for land.
However, the Paris Peace Conference failed to effectively satisfy Italy’s demand, instead, it fostered the outbreak of world war. The powers did not fulfill their promise in the London Conference during the Paris Peace Conference in 1915. Italy only got places like Istria提洛爾 and Tyrol伊斯特里亞, and failed to obtain places like Fiume阜姆 and Dalmatia達爾馬西亞. Italians were greatly disappointed by their weak government. This facilitated the rise of power of Mussolini in 1922 who aimed at getting more land by actively starting invasions. For instance, Yugoslavia南斯拉夫 was forced to hand out Fiume阜姆 in 1924. In the 1930s, Mussolini became more and more aggressive. He invaded Abyssinia阿比西尼亞 in 1935-36, and got Albania阿爾巴尼亞 in 1939. Eventually, he became one of the aggressors in the World War. This showed that the Paris Peace Conference failed to satisfy the demand of Italy which led to the great dissatisfaction of Italy. Eventually, Italy started aggression continuously and this contributed to the outbreak of WW2.
Thirdly, the Paris Peace Conference established the Principle of National Self-determination民族自決 in the hope of minimizing conflicts among difference nationalities. WW1 was sparked off due to the Sarajevo Incident塞拉耶佛危機(1914). Therefore, the powers would like to avoid the war sparked off by the desire of gaining independent of different ethnic groups. In the Paris Peace Conference, Principle of National Self-determination民族自決 was put forward. People of the same ethic were allowed to form an independent state. For instance, in the ‘Treaty of St. Germain’ 聖澤門條約, some of the lands in Austria-Hungary were ceded, then Czechoslovakia捷克斯洛伐克 and Yugoslavia南斯拉夫 were formed; in the ‘Treaty of Sèvres’賽佛爾條約, Egypt埃及 and Sudan蘇丹 were allowed to be freed from the ruling of Turkey土耳其 and became two new independent states. The implementation of the Principle of National Self-determination could greatly reduce conflicts among some ethnic minorities in striving for independence and eventually preserving peace. This showed that the objective of putting forward the Principle of National Self-determination in Paris Peace Conference was to preserve peace.
However, in the long term, the Principle of National self-determination in Paris Peace Conference greatly facilitated the outbreak of war. Great loopholes existed in the principle, like it neglected the importance of balance of power勢力均衡. Numerous weak nation states were formed between Germany and Soviet Union. As a result, these states could easily become the targets of invaders’ aggression. In 1939, Germany got Czechoslovakia捷克 without any fight or blood. Later, she assaulted Poland波蘭 and led to the outbreak of WW2. Apart from that, the existence of the Principle of National Self-determination was very unfair. As a defeated nation, Germany was not put under such principle, worse still, the powers ceded the land where lived Germans to other countries. For instance, Sudetenland蘇台德區 where lived 3 million Germans was given to Czechoslovakia捷克斯洛伐克. As a result, Germany was greatly discontented and the principle became an excuse for the annexation of Sudetenland in 1938. This greatly facilitated invasions and the outbreak of wars. Therefore, although the Principle of National Self-determination was aimed at preserving peace, it fostered the outbreak of a world war.
Fourthly, the Paris Peace Conference suggested the establishment of the League of Nations in the hope of preserving peace. Before WW1, the international community lacked a systematic and authoritative way to resolve conflicts, hence, numerous conflicts were resulted. For instance, the two Balkan Wars and the First World War. Therefore, in the ‘Fourteen Points’ 和平十四點 put forward by the US, one of the suggestions was to establish a peacekeeping organization to resolve international conflicts and preserve peace. The League Nations (1920) was thus established under such situation. In the League, the Assembly會員大會 was formed in order to provide a channel for members to communication and foster their relationship. Apart from that, the Permanent Court of International Justice國際法庭 was established so as to resolve and arbitrate international disputes by law. This showed that the treaty suggesting the establishment of the League of Nations was aimed at preserving peace.
However, the effectiveness of the League of Nations was low, she even encouraged the outbreak of wars with her failure in deterring invasions in the 1930s. The Paris Peace Conference suggested the forming of the League of Nations in the hope of resolving international conflicts. However, the League of Nations did not have an independent army, together with the fact that powers like the US and Soviet Union did not join the League for a long time. Therefore, the effectiveness of the League of Nations in preserving peace was limited. Later, invasions were encouraged by the League of Nations. For instance, Japan initiated the September 18th Incident九一八事變 in 1931. Although Japan was proved to be an invader, the League of Nations could only condemn and impose economic sanctions to her which was ineffective in deterring her actions. Due to the weaknesses of the League of Nations, it showed that the powers did not have an effective way to deter invasion. Worse still, invaders became more and more aggressive. Japan invaded the whole of China in 1937 (July 7th Incident七七事變) and sparked off the war in Asia. This showed that the Paris Peace Conference hoped to establish the League of Nations to preserve peace, but eventually her uselessness encouraged the outbreak of a World War.
To sum up, the powers enacted the Paris Peace Treaty was aimed at preserving peace through punishing Germany, satisfying the territorial demand of Italy, implementing the Principle of National Self-determination and establishing the League of Nations. Unfortunately, such aims failed to fulfill and even sowed seed to the outbreak of WW2.
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