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原題目題號：DSE-2013-Essay-04
「巴黎和會產生的問題較其解決的更加多。」參考1919-39年間的歷史，評論此說能否成立。
架構 雖然列強於一次大戰後召開了巴黎和會，試圖解決德國再次發動戰爭、意大利的領土渴求、民族主義衝突和國際衝突等問題。然而，基於巴黎和會的安排失當，更導致了更多的問題出現。 // 立場因此，題目所言確能成立。
主旨句 其一，和會短暫地解決了德國再次發動戰爭的問題。 // 項目B 巴黎和會首要解決的問題就是阻止德國再次發動戰爭，因此，列強制定苛刻的《凡爾賽條約》，以削弱德國的國力，避免德國再次挑起戰端。例如於條約中，德國被迫賠款66億英鎊、裁減陸軍人數至10萬人、割讓約10%的土地和人口，並且禁止德國與奧地利合併。這些條款大大削弱了德國的國力，短期內消除了德國再次發動戰爭的可能性。
主旨句 然而，長遠而言，和會挑起了德國的復仇情緒，產生出更多的問題。 // 項目A 由於巴黎和會對於德國的懲罰極度苛刻，德國甚至需要承擔全部的戰爭罪責，結果導致德人大為不滿，產生出復仇情緒。更甚，新成立的威瑪共和政府一上台便簽訂了喪權辱國的《凡爾賽條約》，使其一上台便不受歡迎。日後，希特拉打著推翻《凡爾賽條約》的口號而得到人民支持，於1933年上台。其上台後逐步推翻《凡爾賽條約》，先於1935年重新擴軍，及後不斷發動侵略，最終德國於1939年突襲波蘭，要求取得於和約中失去的但澤市，結果使二次大戰在德國報復下爆發。 // 對比(~20%) 相比之下，就長遠角度而言，和會雖然短暫解決了德國再次挑起戰端的問題，但卻燃燒起德國人的復仇情緒，有助日後希特拉上台，並再次發動侵略以推翻和約，引致1939年二次大戰的爆發，可見和會產生的問題實多於其解決的。
其二，和會在小程度上滿足了意大利對於領土渴求的問題。由於英、法於1915年倫敦會議中以領土作為報酬，承諾戰後給予阜姆、達爾馬西亞、提洛爾及伊斯特里亞等地予意大利，利誘意大利由原本的三國同盟轉投至協約國陣營，對德、奧開戰。因此，列強於和會中需要滿足意大利對領土的渴求，將提洛爾和伊斯特里亞給予了意大利，在小程度上解決了意大利對於領土的渴望。
然而，和會大程度上不能滿足意大利對領土的渴求，使更多的問題出現。由於列強於和會中未有完全兌現1915年倫敦會議的諾言，意大利僅獲得提洛爾和伊斯特里亞等地，但卻未能取得阜姆和達爾馬西亞，因此使意大利人極為不滿，甚至不斷策略事端以圖獲得兩地，例如1919年意大利冒險家鄧南遮曾組織一支志願軍佔領阜姆。更甚，意大利政府在巴黎和會的無能使人民大為失望，有助強勢的墨索里尼於1922年上台，日後更積極發動侵略，例如1924年強迫南斯拉夫交出阜姆、1926年迫使阿爾巴尼亞成為其保護國等。相比之下，就成效而言，和會嘗試滿足意大利對於領土的渴望，但正正因為列強未能於和會中兌現諾言，導致意大利極為不滿，日後不斷發動事端及侵略，故和會產生的問題的確較其解決的多。
其三，和會表面上解決了民族衝突的問題。由於一次大戰的導火線塞拉耶佛危機(1914年)是由民族主義衝突所引發，列強為了再避免各民族之間為了尋求獨立而爆發戰爭，故於和會中確立了「民族自決」的原則，讓同一民族的人民建立獨立國家，例如是波蘭、捷克斯洛伐克和匈牙利等。此舉減少了小數民族為了尋求獨立而再次挑起戰端，解決了民族衝突的問題。
然而，和會中提出的「民族自決」原則導致了更多的問題出現。「民族自決」的原則存有頗多的漏洞，因和會忽視勢力均衡的重要性，建立了許多弱小的民族小國於德、蘇之間，結果，這些民族小國容易成為侵略國的目標，其中1939年時，德國就兵不血刃吞併了捷克，及後又突襲波蘭，導致了二次大戰爆發。此外，「民族自決」的原則存有極大的不公，因德國作為戰敗國，被排除出「民族自決」的原則外，列強更把日耳曼人居住的聚居地割讓予其他國家，例如擁有300萬人居住的蘇台德區交予捷克斯洛伐克，結果導致了德國的強烈不滿，更成為1938年重新吞併蘇台德區的藉口。相比之下，就長遠角度而言，儘管和會短期解決了小國間的民族衝突，但長遠而言，正正基於「民族自決」的漏洞及不當，一連串的侵略於1930年代末接連發生，最終更因此等的侵略而觸發了二次大戰，可見和會產生的問題的確較其解決的更多。
其四，和會有助解決往後出現的國際衝突。一次大戰前，國際社會缺乏具系統性及權威性的方式以解決衝突，因此使戰爭屢起，例如兩次巴爾幹戰爭及一次大戰等。因此，列強於和會中提議成立國際聯盟，專責調停國際糾紛。國聯的成立有助解決國與國之間的衝突，例如調停了1923年意大利炮轟希臘科孚島和阻止了1925年希臘入侵保加利亞等事件，有助締造和平。
然而，和會成立的國聯成效有限，更因其於1930年代無力阻止侵略，反衍生出更多的問題。和會雖然成立了國聯以解決國際糾紛，但由於國聯缺乏軍隊，加上美、蘇等大國長期均沒有加入國聯，因此令國聯的維和能力有限。往後，更因國聯此等的缺陷，而助長了侵略的出現，例如日本於1931年發動「九一八事變」侵略中國，雖然其後經過調查證實日本的行動是侵略，但國聯只能譴責日本及對之進行經濟制裁，無助於阻止侵略。更正正基於國聯的無能，揭示出列強缺乏有效的方式阻止侵略，因而使侵略國更趨囂張跋扈，其中日本就於1937年全面侵略中國，觸發亞洲戰線。相比之下，就成效而言，雖然和會成立了國聯作為維和機構，並且解決了1920年代的部分衝突，但其於1930年代面對極權大國的侵略時弱點盡露，更因此而助長了侵略者的氣焰，使侵略國的行動愈趨恣肆，產生的問題的確較其解決的更多。
總括而言，巴黎和會嘗試解決德國再次發動戰爭、意大利的領土渴求、民族主義衝突和國際衝突等問題，但和會的成效有限，更正正基於其方法的不當而導致了更多的問題出現，最終更導致了二次大戰的爆發。
‘The Paris Peace Conference caused more problems than it resolved.’ Comment on the validity of this statement with reference to the period 1919-39.
Paris Peace Conference was held by the powers after WW1 in the hope of solving problems such as the desire of Germany in reinitiating wars, territorial demand of Italy, conflicts concerning nationalism and international disputes. However, some loopholes existed in the arrangement of Paris Peace Conference. So, more problems were created than it had solved. Therefore, the statement was totally valid.
Firstly, the Paris Peace Conference solved the problem of Germany reinitiating wars in a short term. The major problem that needed to be solved in the Paris Peace Conference was to deter Germany from reinitiating wars. Therefore, the powers enacted the harsh Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約 so as to reduce the national strength of Germany and prevent her from initiating wars. For instance, in the treaty, Germany was forced to repay an indemnity of 6.6 billion pounds, reduce the army size to 100 thousand soldiers, cede 10% land and population, as well as prohibit her from combining with Austria. These clauses greatly reduced the national strength of Germany. It reduced the possibility for Germany to reinitiate wars in a short term.
However, in a long term, the Paris Peace Conference sparked off Germans desire to take revenge and this created more problems. Punishments as suggested in the Paris Peace Conference were extremely harsh. Germany even had to bear all war responsibility. As a result, Germans were greatly discontented and their desire to take revenge sparked off. Worse still, the newly established Weimar Republic威瑪共和政府 lost popularity as it signed the humiliating Treaty of Versailles when it first rose to power. Later, Hitler gained people’s support with his advocacy in overthrowing the Treaty of Versailles and he successfully seized power in 1933. He gradually overthrew the Treaty of Versailles since then. Germany started to remilitarize in 1935 and initiated numerous invasions. Eventually, Germany assaulted Poland波蘭 in 1939 in which she demanded getting back Danzig但澤市, which was lost in the Treaty of Versailles, and this led to the outbreak of WW2. In comparison, from a long-term perspective, although the Paris Peace Conference solved the problem of Germany reinitiating wars, it sparked the Germans desire to take revenge and facilitated the rise of Hitler. Eventually, he initiated invasions to overthrow the treaty and led to the outbreak of WW2 in 1939. This showed that the Paris Peace Conference created more problems than it had solved.
Secondly, the conference satisfied the territorial demand of Italy to a small extent. Britain and France promised to give lands like Fiume阜姆, Dalmatia達爾馬西亞, Tyrol提洛爾 and Istria伊斯特里亞 to Italy after the war in the London Conference倫敦會議 in 1915. The aim of such move was to lure Italy to turn to support the Allied from the Triple Alliance and fight against Germany and Austria. Therefore, the powers had to satisfy the territorial demand of Italy in the Paris Peace Conference. Italy was granted with Tyrol提洛爾 and Istria伊斯特里亞 and this to a small extent satisfied Italian demand for territories.
However, to a large extent, the conference failed to satisfy the territorial demand of Italy and created more problems. In the Paris Peace Conference, the powers failed to fulfill their promises in the London Conference in 1915. Italy only received places like Tyrol提洛爾 and Istria伊斯特里亞, but she failed to get Fiume阜姆 and Dalmatia達爾馬西亞. This sparked huge dissatisfaction of the Italians. They even initiated different incidents in the hope of getting these two places back. For instance, in 1919, Gabriele d'Annunzio鄧南遮, an Italian adventurer, organized a volunteer army and occupied Fiume阜姆. Worse still, weaknesses of the Italian government were revealed in the Paris Peace Conference and this disappointed her people a lot. The situation facilitated the rise of strong Mussolini in 1922 and this leader later initiated numerous invasions. For instance, in 1924, Yugoslavia南斯拉夫 was forced to give out Fiume; Albania was turned to Italy’s protectorate in 1926. In comparison, with respect to its effectiveness, the Paris Peace Conference tried to satisfy the desire of Italians in obtaining territories. However, as the powers failed to fulfill their promises in the conference, great discontent was sparked off in Italy, numerous invasions were then initiated. Therefore, the Paris Peace Conference created more problems than it had solved.
Thirdly, the Paris Peace Conference solved the problem of conflicts among different nationalities on the surface. WW1 was directly sparked off by the Sarajevo Incident塞拉耶佛危機(1914), which was originated from the conflicts among different ethnicities. The powers thus implemented the Principle of National Self-determination民族自決 so as to prevent wars occurred due to the desire of different ethnicities in striving for independence. People of the same nationality could form an independent nation. For instance, Poland波蘭, Czechoslovakia捷克斯洛伐克 and Hungary匈牙利. This moved could reduce the chance of war occurred due to the desire of the ethnic minorities in getting independence and solved the problem of conflicts due to such reason.
However, the Principle of National Self-determination as suggested in the Paris Peace Conference led to more problems. A lot of loopholes existed in the principle as the importance of balance of power was being neglected and a lot of weak and small nations were established between Germany and Soviet Union. As a result, these nation states became the targets of aggressors. In 1939, Germany annexed Czechoslovakia捷克 without any efforts paid. Later, she assaulted Poland波蘭 and led to the outbreak of WW2. Apart from that, unfairness existed in the Principle of National Self-determination. As a defeated nation, Germany was not put under the principle. Worse still, the powers ceded some territories where lived Germans to other countries. For instance, Sudetenland蘇台德區, where lived 3 million Germans, was given to Czechoslovakia. Great dissatisfaction was sparked off in Germany and this even became an excuse for her invasion to Sudetenland in 1938. In comparison, from a long-term perspective, the Paris Peace Conference temporarily solved the national conflicts among small states; however, in the long run, due to the loopholes of the principle of national self-determination, a series of aggression happened in the late 1930s. Eventually, these invasions led to the outbreak of WW2. This showed that the Paris Peace Conference created more problems than it had solved.
Fourthly, the Paris Peace Conference helped to solve the international disputes happened later. Before WW1, international community lacked a systematic and authorized way to solve conflicts. Numerous wars thus occurred, the two Balkan Wars and WW1, for instance. Therefore, the powers suggested forming the League of Nations that focused on arbitrating international disputes in the conference. The establishment of the League of Nations could effectively solve conflicts among countries. For instance, it arbitrated the Corfu Incident in 1923, which Italy fired at Corfu Island科孚島 in Greece; it also deterred Greece希臘 from invading Bulgaria保加利亞 in 1925. The League could help in preserving peace.
However, the effectiveness of the League of Nations established in the Paris Peace Conference was limited as it failed to deter aggressions in the 1930s and hence created more problems. The League of Nations was formed to solve international conflicts. However, the League did not have an independent army, together with the fact that powers like the US and Soviet Union did not join the League for a long period of time. As a result, the ability of the League in preserving peace was limited. After that, such weaknesses of the League even encouraged aggressions. For instance, the September 18th Incident九一八事變 occurred in 1931 with Japan invasion to China. In the incident, Japan’s action was proved to be an aggression. However, the League of Nations could only condemned Japan and punished her by imposing economic sanctions. These acts failed to deter her ambition. The weakness of the League reflected the failure of powers in formulating an effective way to deter aggression. Therefore, invaders became even more ambitious. Japan invaded the whole of China in 1937 and sparked off wars in Asia. In comparison, with respect to its effectiveness, the League of Nations established in the Paris Peace Conference could preserve peace and solve some of the conflicts in the 1920s. However, in the face of the aggressions of totalitarian states in the 1930s, its weaknesses were totally revealed and this encouraged their invasions. The invasions of aggressors became more and more ambitious and the problems created were more than that it solved.
To sum up, Paris Peace Conference tried to solve the problems of Germany reinitiating wars, territorial demand of Italy, conflicts among different nationalities and international disputes. However, the effectiveness of the conference was still limited. Due to its incorrect ways used, more problems were created and eventually led to the outbreak of WW2.
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