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「英、法為維護和平所作出的努力，在1919-39年間未能為歐洲帶來和平。」評論此說能否成立。
背景 在一次世界大戰後，由於美國實行孤立政策，而蘇聯就因共產主義的關係而被國際社會孤立，維持歐洲和平的重任便落到英、法身上。 // 架構 雖然英、法在1919-39年間嘗試透過和平會議、國聯、和平條約、裁軍會議、綏靖政策及互助條約等方式維持和平，但上述努力均以徹底失敗為告終。 // 立場 因此，題目所言確能成立。
主旨句 其一，英、法舉行巴黎和會試圖維持和平，但卻埋下另一次大戰爆發的種子，未能維持和平。 // 方法 在1919年，英、法與其他戰勝國召開了巴黎會議，試圖解決一次大戰後的問題，以維持和平。其中，英、法兩國的領導人作為「三巨頭」之二，對於和會有著舉足輕重的影響力，例如在制訂對德國的安排一事上，法國極力要求嚴懲德國，使德國在《凡爾賽條約》中被迫賠償達330億美元、承擔全部戰爭罪責；在給予意大利領土方面，英、法及美國最終給予提洛爾及伊斯特里亞予意大利。 // 成效 然而，由於英、法在和會中的安排失當，結果導致德、意兩國極為不滿，成為日後大戰爆發的伏線。例如在德國安排上，嚴苛的《凡爾賽條約》導致了德國人的強烈不滿，日後使希特拉打著推翻條約的旗幟而獲得人民支持，在1933年上台不斷發動侵略，例如1939年侵略捷克及突襲波蘭，使二次大戰爆發。此外，由於英、法失信於意大利，未有將阜姆及達爾馬西亞給予意大利，結果也令意人不滿，有助墨索里尼於1922年的上台，並且上台後積極擴張，例如1935年入侵阿比西尼亞，大大損害和平。 // 小結 可見，英、法主導的巴黎和會未能締結歐洲和平，更成為二次大戰爆發的遠因。
其二，英、法主導的國際聯盟在1919-39年間只能帶來有限度的和平，成效不足。由於美國國會卻反對美國加入國聯，結果令美國由始至終均沒有加入國聯，維持國聯運作的重任落到英、法兩個常任理事國身上，成為英、法維持歐洲和平的其中方式之一。雖然在英、法的主導下，國聯成功解決了1920年代的地區性衝突，包括1923年阻止了意大利炮轟希臘科孚島，維持了1920年代的歐洲和平。然而，隨著1929年經濟大蕭條後，英、法兩國國力日漸軟弱，需要專注解決國內經濟問題，使兩國未能全力投入國聯的維和事務，以致國聯在1930年代不但未能阻止侵略，甚至助長了侵略國的野心。例如在意大利侵略阿比西尼亞一事上，雖然阿比西尼亞位於非洲，但正正由於英、法所主導的國聯未能遏止意大利侵略阿比西尼亞，最終令意大利無視國聯的經濟制裁，更於1937年退出國聯，並於1939年再次侵略巴爾幹半島上的阿爾巴尼亞。由於國聯並無獨立的軍隊，只是依靠會員國提供軍事力量，但當時作為常任理事國的英、法衰弱，根本無力派軍協助阻止侵略，結果使侵略國視國聯如無物，和平未能得到維持。可見，英、法主導的國聯並未能夠成功維持和平。
其三，英、法帶動國際社會所簽訂的和平條約未能有效維持和平。在兩次大戰期間，在英、法串針引線下，國際社會分別在1925年及1928年簽訂了《羅加諾公約》及《凱格—白里安公約》兩條和平條約，營造了1920年代的「歐洲蜜月期」。其中，在《羅加諾公約》中，英國作為保證國，確定德國遵守公約中有關德、法、比邊界維持現狀的安排；在《凱格—白里安公約》中，法國外相白里安呼籲各國採取非戰爭方式作為外交方針。然而，英、法帶動下所簽訂的和平條約未能帶來真正的和平。雖然英國在《羅加諾公約》中作為保證國，但當德國於1936年將萊茵河區軍事化，撕毀公約時，英國卻毫無行動，結果增加了往後德國擴張的信心。加上，英、法在制定《羅加諾公約》時考慮不周，只規定了德國的西邊邊界，並未有規定德國的東邊邊界，以致日後德國向東擴張，例如在1939年侵占捷克全境，成為侵略者的漏洞。此外，法國在爭取其他國家簽訂《凱格—白里安公約》時也存有局限，同意簽署國在條約中加入「合法性的防衛權」，令往後侵略國以此為由，進行擴張，例如德國在1938年保護日耳曼人為由，要求取回有300萬日耳曼人聚居的蘇台德區，使公約成為侵略者的藉口。可見，英、法帶動下所簽訂的兩條和平條約均未能為歐洲帶來和平。
其四，英、法對裁軍會議的參與未能為歐洲帶來和平。在1919-39年間，英、法兩國參與或主導了三次裁軍會議，包括1921-22年華盛頓會議、1930年倫敦海軍會議及1932-34年日內瓦裁軍會議。其中，英、法兩國在華盛頓會議及日內瓦會議中呼籲各國進行裁軍，而在倫敦海軍會議中，英國更是會議的東道主，主導會議的議程。然而，英、法在裁軍會議方式的努力不能帶歐洲帶來長久有效的和平氣氛。在華盛頓會議中，英、法及其他與會國只規定了海軍軍艦上的比例，但卻對於陸軍、空軍的裁減隻字不提。至倫敦海軍會議時，法國更沒有簽訂《限制和削減海軍軍備條約》，使會議的成效局限於英、美、日三國。也正正基於缺乏其他國家的參與，英、美、日三國於簽訂條約允許「若簽署國以外一國擴張，簽署國亦可之」的條文，結果令裁軍會議的成效變得可有可無。至日內瓦裁軍會議，法國更因恐懼德國軍力而極力要求德國再次裁軍，結果導致德國嚴重不滿，最終德國憤然退出會議，令其他國家懼怕德國死灰復燃而加緊擴軍，裁軍會議以徹底失敗告終。可見，英、法對裁軍會議的參與未能有效為歐洲帶來和平的氣氛。
其五，英、法以綏靖政策的方式試圖維持和平，但同樣成效欠奉，未能締造出歐洲的和平。基於英、法兩國在1929年經濟大蕭條後國力嚴重衰退，無力再以強硬的方式應對侵略國的行動。因此，英、法兩國轉而採取綏靖政策，即以退讓的方式滿足侵略國的野心，希望令侵略國不再發動侵略。然而，此方法不但未能滿足侵略國的野心，反助長了侵略國的氣焰，令侵略愈趨激進，終令第二次世界大戰爆發。例如1938年德國要求取得蘇台德區時，英、法對德國採取退讓的態度，舉行了慕尼黑會議，將蘇台德區拱手讓予德國。結果，原本在蘇台德區佈滿國防要塞的捷克在失去該地後防衛能力大減，更容易成為德國侵略的目標。在1939年3月，德國兵不血刃就侵占了捷克全境，成和平再次受到嚴重的破壞。往後，德國深知英、法阻止自己的擴張，更於1939年9月突襲波蘭，最終二次大戰在英、法對侵略國的接連退讓下爆發。可見，英、法以綏靖政策維持和平的方式是徹底失敗。
其六，法國以互助條約的方式試圖維持局部的歐洲和平，但同樣失敗。為了防止受到侵略國的攻擊，法國於1925年分別與波蘭及捷克斯洛伐克簽訂《互助條約》，規定若一國受到他國攻擊時，另一簽署國需要援助。另外，於1935年德國重新徵兵後，法國也與蘇聯簽訂《互助條約》，以加強防衛能力，阻止他國入侵。然而，法國與多國締結的《互助條約》也以失敗告終，未能有效保障簽署國的安全。由於各國均以自身利益為依歸，條約並不能發揮實際效用，如德國於1939年入侵捷克斯洛伐克時，法國因恐會捲入戰爭而未有提供援助。同樣地，由於蘇聯恐懼德國入侵，故1939年德國在邀請下，蘇聯便與德國達成了《互不侵犯條約》，使法、蘇間的《互助條約》失效。及後，德國在同年突襲波蘭時，法國遵守《互助條約》而協助波蘭，聯同英國對德國發動最後通牒，但由於過往多次對德國的縱容，結果令德國開戰信心已決，德國對英、法的行動毫不退讓，最終令到二次大戰爆發。可見，法國以互助條約的方式也未能成功維持和平。
總括而言，雖然英、法在兩次大戰期間作出了不同的嘗試以維持和平，但此等努力成缺欠奉，最終二次大戰在一次大戰結束後20年爆發。
‘Britain and France’s efforts to maintain peace failed to bring about peace in Europe in the period 1919-39.’ Comment on the validity of this statement.
After the First World War, the US adopted the isolationist policy and Soviet Union was being isolated by the international community due to the adoption of communism. The responsibility of preserving peace in Europe fell to Britain and France. Although Britain and France attempted to preserve peace through peace conferences, the League of Nations, peace treaties, disarmament conferences, the appeasement policy and Treaty of Mutual Assistance. However, the above ways were in total failure. Hence, the statement was valid.
Firstly, Britain and France organized the Paris Peace Conference in the hope of preserving peace, but it sowed seed to another war and failed to achieve the goal. In 1919, the victorious nations, Britain and France held the Paris Peace Conference巴黎會議, trying to solve the problems of First World War and preserve peace. Leaders of Britain and France, as members of the Big Three三巨頭, had immense influence to the conference. For instance, France suggested to punish Germany harshly in her arrangement. As a result, Germany had to pay an indemnity of USD$33 billion in the Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約, bear all war responsibility; in the territorial arrangement of Italy, Britain, France and the US eventually gave Tyrol提洛爾 and Istria伊斯特里亞 to her. However, due to the mistakes in the arrangement of Britain and France in the conference, Germany and Italy were greatly discontented. It became the underlying cause leading to the outbreak of another world war. For instance, in the arrangement to Germany, the harsh Treaty of Versailles sparked the discontent of Germans. Later, Hitler希特拉gained great support by advocating the overthrow of treaty. He initiated invasions after his rise of power in 1933, for instance, he invaded Czechoslovakia捷克 in 1939 and assaulted Poland波蘭, leading to the outbreak of Second World War. Apart from that, Britain and France disappointed Italy which they failed to provide her with Fiume阜姆 and Dalmatia達爾馬西亞. As a result, Italians were discontented as well. This facilitated the rise of Mussolini墨索里尼 in 1922 and he actively expanded after that. For instance, he invaded Abyssinia阿比西尼亞 in 1935 which greatly damaged peace. This showed that the British-French led Paris Peace Conference failed to create peace in Europe and even became an indirect cause leading to Second World War.
Secondly, the British-French led League of Nations could bring limited peace in 1919-39 and had insufficient effectiveness. Due to the opposition of the US Parliament, the US did not join the League of Nations from the beginning to end. The responsibility of sustaining the operation of the League fell to two permanent members常任理事國, Britain and France. This was a way for them to preserve peace in Europe. Under their guidance, the League could successfully solve the regional conflicts in the 1920s. It included deterring Italy in bombarding Greece Corfu Island希臘科孚島 in 1923 which preserved peace in the 1920s. However, with the Great Depression經濟大蕭條 in 1929, the national strength of Britain and France decreased and they had to focus on solving internal economic problems. As a result, the failed to fully devote on the peace-keeping affairs in the League of Nations. Hence, the League not only failed to deter invasions in the 1930s, it motivated the ambition of aggressors. For instance, the invasion of Italy in Abyssinia阿比西尼亞. Abyssinia located in Africa. Due to the British-French led League of Nations failed to stop Italian aggression, Italy neglected the economic sanction and quitted the league in 1937. In 1939, Italy invaded Albania阿爾巴尼亞 which was located in the Balkans. The League of Nations did not have an independent troops and relied on the military power of member states. However, Britain and France, as the permanent members, were weak and could not send troops to deter invasions. Aggressors thus ignored the League and peace could not be preserved. This showed that the British-French led League of Nations failed to preserve peace.
Thirdly, the peace treaties of international community led by Britain and France failed to preserve peace. During the two World Wars, under the guidance of Britain and France, the international community signed the Locarno Treaties羅加諾公約 and Kellogg-Briand Pact凱格—白里安公約 in 1925 and 1928 respectively. These created the Honeymoon Period蜜月期in the 1920s. In the Locarno Treaties, Britain was the guaranteed nation保證國 which had to ensure that Germany was following the arrangement of preserving the condition of boundaries of Germany, France and Belgium; in the Kellogg-Briand Pact, French foreign minister Briand白里安 asked the countries to stop the use of war in building diplomatic relationship. However, those peace treaties encouraged by Britain and France could not bring real peace. Although Britain was the guaranteed nation in the Locarno Treaties, when Germany remilitarized Rhineland萊茵河區 in 1936 and scrapped the treaty, Britain did not take any action. As a result, this increased the confidence of German expansion. Moreover, Britain and France did not consider comprehensively in enacting Locarno Treaties. They just determined the border of the West of Germany and failed to regulate that in the East. Germany thus expanded in the East later. For instance, the whole of Czechoslovakia捷克 was being invaded in 1939 and this showed that the treaty had great loophole. Furthermore, limitations existed when France persuaded countries to sign the Kellogg-Briand Pact. In the treaty, signatories were subjected to ‘legitimate self-defense’ 合法性的防衛權 which became a reason for invaders to invade and expand. For instance, in 1938, Germany used the protection of Germans as a pretext and demanded to retreat Sudetenland蘇台德區 where lived 3 million Germans. The treaty became a pretext for aggressors. This illustrated that the peace treaties encouraged by Britain and France failed to bring peace to Europe.
Fourthly, the participation of Britain and France in disarmament conferences failed to bring peace to Europe. In 1919-39, Britain and France participated and led three disarmament conferences, including the Washington Conference華盛頓會議 in 1921-22, London Naval Conference倫敦海軍會議 in 1930 and the Geneva Conference日內瓦裁軍會議 in 1932-34. Britain and France asked countries to disarm in Washington Conference and Geneva Conference. As in London Naval Conference, Britain was the host of the conference leading its agenda. However, efforts of disarmament conferences paid by Britain and France could not bring long-term peace to Europe. In Washington Conference, Britain, France and other member countries only regulated the ratio of dreadnoughts in navy. However, disarmament of army and air force was not mentioned. In the London Naval Conference, France did not sign the Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament限制和削減海軍軍備條約, making the treaty only limited to Britain, the US and Japan. Due to the lack of participation of countries, Britain, the US and Japan signed the treaty which allowed that ‘if any country other than the signatories started to expand its navy, the signatories could follow suit’ 若簽署國以外一國擴張，簽署國亦可之. As a result, the effectiveness of disarmament conference was nearly zero. As in the Geneva Conference, France demanded Germany to disarm with her fear of German military force. Hence, Germany was greatly discontented and she quitted the conference. Other countries feared that Germany would reinitiate invasion and actively expanded their army. Disarmament conferences were in a total failure. This showed that the participation of Britain and France failed to effectively bring peace to Europe.
Fifthly, Britain and France preserved peace by adopting the appeasement policy but the effectiveness was limited and failed to create peace in Europe. National strength of Britain and France greatly reduced after the Great Depression in 1929 and they could not use a forceful way to deal with the actions of aggressors. Therefore, Britain and France adopted the appeasement policy which concede to satisfy the aggression of invaders, hoping that they would not reinitiate invasion. However, this way not only failed to satisfy the aggressors, they were being motivated and expanded radically. These led to the outbreak of Second World War. For instance, when Germany demanded to get Sudetenland蘇台德區 in 1938, Britain and France held an attitude of concession. They held the Munich Conference慕尼黑會議 and gave Sudetenland to Germany. As a result, Czechoslovakia lost this important place for national security and her ability to defense greatly reduced. She thus became the target of German invasion. In March of 1939, Germany occupied the whole of Czechoslovakia捷克 without much efforts and peace was greatly damaged. Later, Germany knew that Britain and France stopped her invasion, but she still assaulted Poland波蘭 in September 1939. Eventually, the Second World War broke out under several concessions of Britain and France. This showed that the appeasement policy adopted by Britain and France in preserving peace was a total failure.
Sixthly, France attempted to preserve peace in some regions of Europe by signing Treat of Mutual Assistance but ended in failure. In order to prevent the invasion of aggressors, France signed the Treaty of Mutual Assistance互助條約 with Poland波蘭 and Czechoslovakia捷克in 1925. It stated that when one was attacked, the other signatory had to offer assistance. Besides, after the reintroduction of German conscription in 1935, France signed the Treaty of Mutual Assistance with the USSR to enhance her defensive power and prevent invasion. However, the Treaty of Mutual Assistance signed by France and different countries ended in failure and failed to provide effective protection to signatories. These countries only focused on their own interests and the treaty could not function effectively. For instance, when Germany invaded Czechoslovakia in 1939, France did not provide any assistance as she afraid that she would be involving in the war. Similarly, as the USSR afraid that Germany would invade her, she signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact互不侵犯條約under German invitation in 1939. The Treaty of Mutual Assistance between France and Soviet Union thus lost its function. Later, Germany assaulted Poland in the same year. France followed the Treaty of Mutual Assistance and provided support to Poland. She then sent an ultimatum to Germany with Britain. However, as Germany was being tolerated many times before, Germany had great confidence in starting the war. Thus, she did not give in when facing the actions of Britain and France. This led to the outbreak of Second World War. This showed that the Treaty of Mutual Assistance provided by France failed to preserve peace.
To sum up, although Britain and France made different attempts in preserving peace in the inter-war period, these efforts had limited effectiveness. Eventually, the Second World War broke out after 20 years of the end of First World War.
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