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原題目題號：DSE-2012-Essay-03
日本在什麼程度上是一個現代化國家？試以1920年代為限，加以討論。
定義 現代化指一國家或地區成功擺脫落後及封建，本質上達致先進、文明的狀況。 // 架構 儘管日本於19世紀初開始的明治維新後已經出現了重大的轉變，在教育及軍事方面已達致現代化，然而，在政治、經濟、社會及外交方面仍然未達到現代化的標準。 // 立場 因此，1920年代末的日本只在小程度上已現代化。
主旨句 政治方面，1920年代末的日本並不能達致真正的現代化。 // 標準政治現代化是指法治而非人治的政府，內閣應擁有箝制軍部的權力。 // 段落內容 雖然日本於1910年代末進入政黨政治時期，原敬於1918年成為了首位擁有政黨背景的首相，加上1925年《普通選舉法》的落實，允許年滿25歲的男性就擁有選舉權，使選民人口大幅提高至19%。然而，日本政治只是表面上的現代化。在政府方面，日本政治仍然是人治而非法治的政府，《明治憲法》賦予了天皇至高無上的權力，可以修改憲法、解散國會、控制軍隊，權力凌駕憲法。此外，在內閣權力方面，雖然左右內閣的成立的「軍部大臣現役武官制」於1913年被取消，但軍部仍然擁有超然的權力，直接覲見天皇，向天皇交代，不受內閣控制，例如1928年在中國的日本關東軍擅自策劃暗殺中國軍閥張作霖的事件，反映內閣權力有限，不能箝制軍部。 // 小結 可見，1920年代末的日本政治實未能達致現代化。
經濟方面，1920年代末的日本經濟也不能稱得上是真正的現代化。經濟現代化指經濟均衡地發展，人民生活溫飽。儘管日本於20世紀初經濟發展蓬勃，工廠的機械化程度高，例如1907年時，日本8,000多家工廠中已多達3,700多間採用機械運作。然而，日本經濟仍未達致現代化。在均衡發展方面，日本經濟由少數財閥壟斷，例如1929年時，三井﹑三菱﹑住友﹑安田及第一等由財閥擁有的五大銀行佔全國銀行存款的34.5%，令日本經濟發展失衡，中、小企業難以發展。在人民生活方面，低下階層生活仍然惡劣，早於1918年時就有日本近數百年來最大規模的暴動「米騷動」，低下階層因為衣食難繼而搶奪米糧。至1920年代，日本更經歷了關東大地震(1923年)、銀行危機(1927年)，至1929年經濟大蕭條發生後，日本失業人數高達300萬人，低下階層生活惡劣，溫飽不保。可見，1920年代末的日本在經濟方面仍然未稱得上是現代化。
社會方面，1920年代末的日本社會受到限制，並未達致現代化。社會現代化指人民可享高的自由度，同時，民族主義並不會發展至偏激的極端民族主義思想。儘管《明治憲法》賦予了人民擁有言論、集會、出版等自由，表面上達致現代化。事實上，日本社會本質仍未達致現代化。在自由度方面，人民的自由只能在「不損害和平的情況」下享有，而政府就經常利用「和平」此一含糊的藉口去壓制人民自由，使人民的權力受到限制。至1925年，日本更頒布了《治安維持法》，初初只針對共產主義分子，但後來卻成為了政府打擊反對言論的工具，成為使人民的自由度進一步受到壓制。在民族主義方面，傳統的武士道精神及忠君愛國思想於20世紀初演變成極端民族主義思想，主張以激進方式捍衛國家利益，剷除國內腐敗的政治家，例如愛國社(1928年)成員於1930年襲擊首相濱口雄幸等，這些極端民族主義思想更成為了日後軍國主義思想興起的根源。可見，日本社會仍未稱得上是現代化。
外交方面，日本在1920年代末並未達致現代化。外交現代化指一個國家在國際事務上受到公平及平等的待遇，受到尊重。雖然日本於20世紀初崛起成為強國，於1920年更是國聯的四個常任理事國之一，表面上享有崇高的國際地位。然而，在國際待遇方面，由於日本是新興的亞洲國家，國力於短期內迅速崛起，並且涉足世界舞台，令西方列強對日本產生恐懼，擔心亞洲國家會威脅其世界領導的地位，故在外交事務上針對日本，使日本在國際舞台上受到西方的歧視。例如日本在1919年巴黎和會中要求加入「種族平等」的條款，但卻遭到英國的反對，令日本大和民族要求與西方達致平等的要求直接受到否決。此外，至1924年時，美國更頒布了《排外法案》，禁止日本人移民到美國，政策上明顯歧視日本人，反映日本未能享受平等及受尊重的國際地位。可見，1920年代末日本外交受到列強歧視及針對，並未達致現代化的標準。
儘管日本在政治、經濟、社會及外交方面並未達致現代化，但也不能忽視日本已實現現代化的方面。
教育方面，高的教育水平可使日本冠以現代化之名。教育現代化指高的教育及學術水平。在教育水平方面，1920年代末的日本教育水平不但冠絕亞洲，更能媲美歐、美等西方國家，因日本早於19世紀末已實行了強制性教育政策，至1907年更將強制性教育的期限由4年提昇為6年，大大提昇了日本受教育的人口及水平，使入學率高達97%。其後，此百份比更於1920年進一步提高至99%，教育水平不但已經遠超亞洲其他國家，並且能夠媲美西方國家，幾乎做到全民教育的水平。在學術水平方面，隨著教育水平不斷提昇的同時，學術水平也相應大幅提昇，物理學﹑醫學﹑天文學等範疇均活躍發展起來，如北里柴三郎及野口英世就因醫學貢獻而被提名諾貝爾學術獎，而森鷗外及夏目漱石也成為當時世界級的文豪，在海外具有很高的知名度。可見，日本擁有高的教育及學術水平，是達到現代化的表現。
軍事方面，強大的軍事實力也令日本可冠以現代化之名。軍事現代化指擁有先進的武備，並且具有平內抵外的能力。在武備方面，日本於1920年代末擁有先進且強大的軍事實力。於19世紀末期起，日本已自行研發先進艦隻的生產，由於大量資金的投入，使海軍科技研發迅速，直1922年，日本更建造出世界第一艘完工服役的標準航空母艦「鳳翔號」，海軍實力足以與西方列強相庭抗禮。於1921-22年的華盛頓會議中，日本的軍艦數量僅次於英、美，成為世界第三大海軍強國。在平內抵外方面，上述現代化的軍事建設，使日本不但能平內抵外，甚至能夠對外擴張，例如於1931年發動「九一八事變」，侵略中國東北地區。可見，1920年代末的日本擁有先進和強大的軍力，達致了現代化。
總括而言，雖然日本在教育及軍事方面已經達致現代化，但整體衡量之下，日本在政治、經濟、社會、外交方面的現代化程度僅停留於表面的層面，不但未能完全達到現代化的標準，更成為1930年代軍國主義興起的有利溫床。因此，1920年代末的日本只在小程度上達致現代化。
To what extent was Japan a modernized country? Limit your discussion up to the 1920s.
A modernized country or region must have got rid of backwardness and feudalism, being modern and civilized in nature. Although huge changes took place in Japan after the Meiji Restoration and it was modernized in educational and military aspects, it failed to satisfy the criteria for modernization in political, economic, social and diplomatic aspects. Therefore, Japan was modernized to a small extent by the end of the 1920s.
Politically, Japan did not achieve genuine modernization by the end of the 1920s. Political modernization refers to the adoption of rule of law法治 instead of rule of man人治 and presence of the Cabinet that is granted power to limit the military. Undoubtedly, Japan entered the era of party politics at the end of the 1910s. Hara Kei原敬 became the first Prime Minister affiliated with political party in 1918 and the electorate expanded to 19% of the population thanks to the promulgation of the General Election Law普通選舉法 in 1925, which gave all men aged 25 or above the right to vote. Nevertheless, Japan was politically modernized only on the surface. In terms of government, rule of man instead of rule of law was adopted there. Stated as the supreme ruler in the Meiji Constitution明治憲法, the Emperor had the rights to amend the Constitution, dissolve the lower house of Diet and control the military. He was in fact superior to the Constitution. In terms of power of the Cabinet, the military enjoyed enormous power despite the abolition of the Military Ministers to be Active-Duty Officers Law軍部大臣現役武官制 in 1913. They had direct access to the Emperor and were not influenced by the Cabinet. Examples like the unauthorized assassination of Zhang Zhoulin張作霖, a Chinese warlord, by the Kwantung Army關東軍 in 1928 reflected the limited power of the Cabinet and its failure to limit the military. It is clear that Japan was not modernized politically by the end of the 1920s.
Economically, Japan was not very modernized indeed by the late 1920s. An economically modernized country should have a balanced economic development and enough food and necessities for its people. Indubitably, Japan’s economy was booming in the early 20th century and the production was highly mechanized. In 1907, for example, 3700 out of some 8000 factories in Japan used machinery in their production. But it does not mean that Japan was modernized economically. In terms of balanced development, Japan’s economy was largely controlled by a small group of zaibatsu財閥. For example, the five biggest banks owned by the zaibatsu, including Mitsui三井, Mitsubishi三菱, Sumitomo住友, Yasuda安田 and Daiichi第一, held 34.5% of Japan’s deposits in 1929. Small and medium-sized enterprises were difficult to develop and survive, and the economy had an unbalanced development. In terms of people’s livelihood, the lives of people at grass-roots level remained poor. As early as 1918, the Rice Riots米騷動 erupted in Japan with unparalleled scale in recent centuries. The less privileged people looted rice and food out of hunger. In the 1920s, Japan even experienced a series of disasters, including the Kanto Great Earthquake關東大地震(1923) and the Bank Crisis銀行危機(1927). After the Great Depression經濟大蕭條 of 1929, the number of the unemployed hit 3 million. The low-income group lived in terrible conditions and might not be able to afford even a meal. Therefore, Japan was not yet modernized economically by the late 1920s.
In social aspect, the Japanese society at that time was full of constraints and not modernized. In a modernized society, people enjoy high degree of freedom and nationalism should never develop into radical extreme nationalism. It is true that the Meiji Constitution明治憲法 gave the Japanese freedom of speech, assembly and freedom and Japan was modernized superficially. But in fact, Japan’s society was not fundamentally modernized. In terms of freedom, it could be enjoyed only when it is ‘not prejudicial to peace and order’ 不損害和平的情況 and the government often took advantage of the vague word ‘peace’ to restrict people’s freedom and power. In 1925, the government even promulgated the Peace Preservation Law治安維持法, which was at first against the communist only but later turned into a tool to mute dissenting voices. People’s freedom was further restricted. In terms of nationalism, the traditional Bushido spirit武士道精神 and thoughts of loyalty to the Emperor and patriotism evolved into extreme nationalist ideas in the beginning of the 20th century. Its upholders supported radical methods to safeguard national interest and eliminate the corrupt politicians in Japan. For example, Prime Minister Osachi Hamaguchi濱口雄幸 was assaulted by members of the Aikokusha愛國社(established in 1928) in 1930. The ideas became the underlying cause of the rise of militarism afterwards. Therefore, the Japanese society was not yet modernized.
In diplomatic aspect, Japan did not achieve modernized by the late 1920s. A diplomatically modernized country should be treated fairly in international affairs, be respected and enjoy equal status. With no doubt, Japan rose as a power in the early 20th century and was one of the permanent members常任理事國 of the League of Nations in 1920. It enjoyed high international status on the surface. However, in terms of the way it was treated by foreign countries, Japan attracted suspicion from the Western powers and their worries about their world leadership being threatened by an Asian country because Japan, as a new influential country, had its national strength increased rapidly and played an active role in the international community. The powers hence took actions against Japan in international affairs and it was discriminated by the West. For example, the Japanese proposed the ‘racial equality clause’ 種族平等 in the Paris Peace Conference巴黎和會 of 1919 but the proposal was objected by British representatives. The request of the Japanese for equality with the West was directly denied. Besides, the US promulgated the American Immigration Act排外法案 in 1924 to ban Japanese immigrants to the States. This was an explicit discrimination against the Japanese and showed that Japan did not enjoy respect and equality. Therefore, Japan was discriminated by the powers diplomatically in the late 1920s and failed to fulfill the criteria for modernization.
Despite the fact that Japan was not modernized in political, economic, social and diplomatic aspects, one should not ignore its modernized aspects.
In educational aspect, Japan could be regarded as modernized because of its high educational standard. Educational modernization concerns high educational level and academic standard. In terms of educational level, Japan’s educational standard at that time was not only far ahead of the other Asian countries, but also on par with the Western countries. This was the result of the compulsory education policy implemented in the end of the 19th century. In 1907, the government further extended compulsory education from 4 to 6 years, raising the number of the educated and educational standard in Japan. National enrolment rate reached 97%, and further increased to 99% in 1920. These showed that Japan’s educational standard was not only far ahead of the other Asian countries, but also on par with the Western countries. The country could almost provide education for all. In terms of academic standard, with the ever-increasing educational standard, Japan’s academic standard also increased significantly. Rapid development could be seen in different fields, including Physics, Medicine and Astronomy. For example, Kitasato Shibasaburo北里柴三郎 and Hideyo Noguchi野口英世 were nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology / Medicine owing to their contributions to medicine. Also, Mori Ogai森鷗外 and Natsume Soseki夏目漱石 became leading writers in the world and were very famous outside Japan. Therefore, Japan’s high educational and academic standard showed its achievement in modernization.
In military aspect, Japan could also be regarded as modernized because of its great military strength. Military modernization refers to the possession of advanced armaments and capabilities to resolve internal disputes and defend the country against external threats. In terms of armaments, Japan possessed a modern and powerful army at the end of the 1920s. Since the late 19th century, Japan had started research and development of advanced warships. With the large sum of money invested, the development of naval technology was rapid. In 1922, Japan even finished the building of the world’s first standard aircraft carrier航空母艦 named Hosho鳳翔號. Its naval strength was on a par with that of the Western powers. In the Washington Conference華盛頓會議 of 1921-22, Japan was allowed to possess a number of warships that was only lower than that of Britain and the US, being the third largest naval power in the world. In terms of guaranteeing internal security and external defense, the modernized military force allowed Japan to resolve internal disputes, defend the country against external threats and even expand its territory. This can be exemplified by the September 18th Incident九一八事變 of 1931, in which Japan invaded the Northeast part of China. It is clear that Japan possessed a modern and powerful military force and achieved modernization by the end of the 1920s.
To conclude, Japan was modernized in educational and military aspects, but on a whole, Japan’s modernization in political, economic, social and diplomatic aspects was superficial. Not only did it fail to satisfy the criteria for modernization, it also became the excellent breeding ground for the rise of militarism in the 1930s. Therefore, Japan was modernized by the late 1920s to a small extent only.
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