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原題目題號：DSE-2014-Essay-03
討論1949-2000年間影響中國與日本關係發展的有利因素和不利因素。
架構受著冷戰初期的惡劣局勢影響，中、日兩國於二次大戰後的關係持續交惡，雖然基於經濟需要、社會的民間興趣及冷戰的緩和局勢下，兩國關係逐步改善，但領土及歷史問題就一直損害著兩國關係的發展，妨礙關係走向友好。以下，將從政治、經濟、社會及外交等方面討論有利及不利中、日關係發展的因素。
主旨句經濟方面，經濟利益及貿易所需是中、日關係發展的有利因素。 // 問題A的段落內容貿易能促進雙方的經濟發展，因此成為日本改善與中國關係的有利契機，例如儘管1950年代時中、日的關係交惡，但由於兩國必須互相進口生活必需品，故兩國也建立了民間的貿易關係，以各取所需，結果分別於1952年及1953年簽訂定了二次《中日民間貿易協定》，有助拉近兩國關係的距離。及後，隨著中國於1978年推行改革開放，中國對外開放國內市場，中、日更於1978年及1995年兩次簽訂了《中日長期貿易協定》，在促進貿易往來的同時，也大大推動了兩國關係的發展。 // 小結可見，經濟的利益及需要成為中、日兩國改善關係的契機，促使兩國建立互惠互利的合作關係。
社會方面，中、日兩國的民間興趣活動也有助推動兩國關係的正常化發展。民間興趣也促進了中國與日本的關係發展，例如早於1950年代時，雖然中日關係惡劣，但民間的文化、藝術交流就成為改善兩國關係發展的契機，其中日本於1956年成立了中日文化交流協會，促進兩國的文化交流，包括中國京劇大師梅蘭芳率團訪問日本(1956年)﹑長崎舉辦中國郵票展(1958年)等。民間的交流有利於中、日政府往後建立半官方，以至官方式的接觸，是兩國發展關係的重要基礎。可見，儘管中、日兩國早期缺乏官方接觸，但民間的交流及接觸就有助為兩國僵化的關係破冰，為一有利因素。
外交方面，冷戰中後期的緩和局勢有助中、日關係的發展。雖然在冷戰初期，由於中、日分別屬於共產主義及資本主義政權，因此當時日本跟隨美國的外交政策，圍堵共產主義的中國，令中、日關係交惡。然而，至冷戰進入1970年代的低盪時期，隨著美國與中國的關係藉「乒乓外交」(1972年)而有所改善，日本也跟隨美國的外交政策而改善與中國的關係，於同年宣佈與中國建交，使中、日關係走向正常化。及後，冷戰的緩和氣氛持續，美國與蘇聯等兩大陣營的成員國於1975年簽訂《赫爾辛基協定》，強調互相尊重，中、日也在這緩和的氣氛中繼續發展關係，於1978年簽訂了《中日和平友好條約》，承諾互相尊重、互不侵犯及不干涉主權等，令中、日關係得到了重大的發展。可見，雖然國際形勢並非全然有利中、日關係的發展，但也不能忽視其促使中、日關係正常化的貢獻。
從上可見有利中、日關係發展的因素，然而，兩國關係在20世紀下半葉也受著政治、社會及外交等不利因素的影響。
主旨句 政治方面，領土的主權問題大大妨礙中、日關係的發展，為一不利因素。 // 問題B的段落內容領土上的糾紛嚴重破壞了中國與日本的關係，雖然日本於第二次世界大戰後需要歸還曾經侵略的所有領土，但基於複雜的歷史問題，中國與日本的邊界問題一直未能得到確定及解決，釣魚台的主權爭端就一直破壞兩國的關係。例如日本右翼極端份子於1996在釣魚台的其中一個島嶼興建燈塔，就導致了中國官方的強烈譴責及民間的大規模反日示威。更甚，尚未得到解決的領土爭議成為了21世紀損害亞洲地區和平及穩定的重要因素，使中國與日本關係緊張。 // 小結可見，領土的主權問題是中、日關係發展的重大障礙。
社會方面，二次大戰所遺留下來的歷史問題是中、日改善關係的絆腳石。日本與中國就歷史的罪責及真確問題經常發生爭執，損害著兩國關係的發展。部分日本人或團體否認侵華歷史，例如辯稱南京大屠殺是因中國國民激烈反抗才導致大規模的死傷，因此引起了中國的不滿。更甚，自1982年起，日本文部省容許上述的言論出現在教科書內，導致了中國的譴責及抗議。此外，日本首相認為參拜靖國神社是出於對先輩的尊敬，並無不妥，但此舉就引起了中方的強烈不滿，認為此舉是日本對戰爭時期的殘暴行動予以肯定，傷害了中國人民的感情，使中、日關係經常惡化。可見，二次大戰遺留下來的歷史議題是中、日在20世紀下半葉出現摩擦的根源，持續損害著兩國關係的發展。
外交方面，冷戰初期的惡劣形勢不利於中、日關係的發展。冷戰初期，資本主義與共產主義陣營之間的關係惡劣，以致資本主義國家的日本與共產主義國家的中國關係交惡。當時中國與蘇聯靠攏，於1950年簽訂《中蘇友好同盟互助條約》，同時，美國與日本關係密切，美國積極扶助日本重建經濟，銳意將日本打造成圍堵共產主義在亞洲擴張的重要屏障，令中、日關係持續交惡。而且，於國共內戰後，國民黨退守台灣，而日本視中華民國為中國的合法政府，與之簽訂《中日和約》(1952年)，宣佈結束戰爭狀況，就大大引起了中共政府的不滿，往後日本積極與台灣建立更緊密的關係以圍堵中共，亦導致中、日關係對立起來，妨礙了兩國關係的發展。可見，冷戰初期的形勢惡化了中、日關係，為一不利因素。
總括而言，雖然中、日關係在20世紀下半葉逐步得到改善，恢復接觸，並且正式建交，但由於兩國就領土及歷史問題一直未能夠達致共識及妥協，因此令兩國關係未能進一步交好，更不時發生爭執，損害了亞太地區的和平與穩定。
Discuss the factors working for and those working against the development of the Sino-Japanese relationship in the period 1949-2000.
Under the influences of the poor international situation during the early stage of Cold War, the Sino-Japanese relationship after two World Wars was continuously poor. It was true that their relationship gradually improved under the economic interest and trading needs, civil interests and favourable international circumstances of Cold War. However, territorial and historical problems continuously damaged the development of their relationship. These also hindered their building up of friendly relationship. Below, those favourable and unfavourable factors on development of relationship among China and Japan would be discussed in the political, economic, social and diplomatic aspects.
Economically, the economic benefits and demand for trade were one of the favourable factors contributing to the development of Sino-Japanese relationship. Trade could promote economic development of both sides, which provided Japan a chance to improve its relationship with other countries. For instance, the Sino-Japanese relationship was hostile in the 1950s. However, they must import daily necessities from each other and hence a non-official trading relationship was established. As a result, the two Sino Japanese Non-Official Trade Agreements中日民間貿易協定 were signed in 1952 and 1953, which brought the two countries closer. After that, China opened up her domestic market to the world with her the Reforming and Opening-Up in 1978. The Sino-Japanese Treaty of Peace and Friendship中日長期貿易協定 was signed in 1978 and 1995. It greatly improved the Sino-Japanese relationship together with the fostering of trade. This illustrated that with the economic interest and trading needs, a mutual beneficial cooperation relationship was built and their relationship was improved.
Socially, the civil interests of China and Japan facilitated the normalization of their relationship. Civil interests also fostered the development of Sino-Japanese relationship. For instance, as early as in the 1950s, although Sino-Japanese relations remained poor, cultural and artistic exchanges among the people favoured the development of their relations. Japan set up the Japan-China Cultural Exchange Association中日文化交流協會 in 1956 to promote cultural exchanges. For example, Chinese Peking Opera master Mei Lanfang梅蘭芳 led a delegation to visit Japan (1956) and an exhibition of Chinese postage stamps was held in Nagasaki (1958). Civil exchanges helped the establishment of semi-official and official contact between the Chinese and Japanese government and laid the foundation for the development of their relationship. This showed that although China and Japan lacked official contacts in the early stage, cultural exchanges among the people helped to break their tense relationship and was a favourable factor. This showed that although China and Japan did not have official contact at the early stage, the civil exchanges and contact could help to ease their tense relationship. It was hence one of the favourable factors.
Diplomatically, easing up of the tense international circumstance in the second half of the Cold War could help improving the Sino-Japanese relationship. In the early stage of Cold War, China and Japan belonged to the communist and capitalist regimes respectively. Therefore, Japan followed the foreign policies of the US and contained the communist China. As a result, the Sino-Japanese relationship became hostile. However, during détente of the Cold War in the 1970s, the US and China improved relations due to Ping Pong diplomacy乒乓外交(1972). Japan followed the US diplomacy and improved relations with China. Japan and China established official diplomatic relations in the same year, which was a significant move in their relationship. Later, as the peaceful atmosphere continued, members of the two blocs including the US and Soviet Union signed the ‘Helsinki Agreement’ 赫爾辛基協定which focused on mutual respect. Relationship of China and Japan was developed continuously under such situation. Treaty of Peace and Friendship中日和平友好條約 between Japan and China was signed in 1978 which promised clauses like mutual respect, mutual non-aggression and non-intervention to sovereignty. A huge progress was made in the Sino-Japanese relationship. This showed that although the international circumstance did not facilitate the development of Sino-Japanese relationship as a whole, its contribution to their normalization could not be neglected.
The above showed the factors that helped the development of Sino-Japanese relationship. However, their relationship was influenced by the unfavourable factors in the political, social and diplomatic aspects.
Politically, the problem on territorial sovereignty greatly hindered the development of Sino-Japanese relationship, and was one of the unfavourable factors. The territorial conflicts severely damaged the relationship between China and Japan. Although Japan had to return all the invaded land after World War Two, the boundaries of China and Japan were not defined and recognized due to the complex historical problems. Dispute on sovereignty of Diaoyu Islands釣魚台 continuously hindered their relationship. For instance, a Japanese rightist built a beacon in one of the Diaoyu Islands in 1996. It agitated the vigorous denounce of the Chinese government and large scale anti-Japanese protest in the folk. Worse still, the unsolved territorial disputes became a major factor which damaged the peace and stability of Asia in the 21st century. The Sino-Japanese relationship was thus tensed. This showed that the problem on territorial sovereignty was a major obstacle in the development of Sino-Japanese relationship.
Socially, the historical problems brought by the Two World Wars were stumbling stones in the improvement of Sino-Japanese relationship. Conflicts often occurred concerning the war guilt and the historical facts, and this directly damaged the development of their relationship. Some Japanese or associations denied the history of Japanese invasion to China. For instance, they claimed that the large number of casualties in Nanjing Massacre南京大屠殺 was a result of the vigorous resistance of Chinese. This sparked great discontent of China. Worse still, since 1982, the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture文部省 allowed the above opinions to appear on textbooks. This resulted in condemnation and protest of China. Apart from that, the Japanese Prime Ministry believed that visiting the Yasukuni Shrine靖國神社 was a way to show respect to their ancestors and was alright. However, such act sparked the discontent of China as it was believed that such act was to approve the cruel acts during wartime. This harmed the feeling of Chinese citizens and the Sino-Japanese relationship often worsened. This showed that the historical problems left after the two world wars were the reasons for the poor relationship in the second half of the 20th century, and this continuously hindered their relationship.
Diplomatically, the poor situation during the early stage of Cold War was unfavourable to the development of Sino-Japanese relationship. The relationship of the communist blocs and capitalist blocs was continuously poor. It led to the hostility of Japan, which was a member of the capitalist bloc, and China, which was a member of the communist bloc. At that time, Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance中蘇友好同盟互助條約 was signed by China under the facilitation of Soviet Union. At the same time, the US and Japan had a close relationship. The US actively helped the reconstruction of Japanese economy and hoped to turn it to be an important shield to contain the spread of communism in Asia. These made the Sino-Japanese relationship to be continuously hostile. Also, after the Chinese Civil War, the Kuomintang retreated to Taiwan. However, Japan treated the Republic of China as the legitimate Chinese government and signed the Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty中日和約(1952) with her. This treaty declared the ending of situation of war and this greatly sparked the discontent of the Chinese communist government. After that, Japan and Taiwan formed a closer relationship to contain the Communist Party of China. This made the Sino-Japanese relationship to be in a confronting position. This hindered the development of their relationship. This showed that the circumstance in the early stage of Cold War harmed the Sino-Japanese relationship and was an unfavourable factor.
To conclude, the Sino-Japanese relationship gradually improved in the second half of the 20th century, in which they resumed contact and officially establish diplomatic relations. However, they failed to obtain consensus and agreement in the territorial and historical problems. Hence, their relationship could not be improved further. Instead, conflicts occurred and this hindered the peace and stability in the Asia Pacific Zone.
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