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原題目題號：DSE-2015-Essay-03
解釋日本軍國主義為何興起於1930年代而非1930年代之前。
架構 日本的政治、經濟、社會及外交狀況在1930年前後出現了明顯的轉變，此等轉變導致了軍國主義日趨受到人民支持，並成功於1930年代興起。以下，將從上述各方面解釋日本軍國主義於1930年代興起而非此年代之前興起的原因。
主旨句 政治方面，1930年代日本政黨政府的腐敗及軟弱令軍國主義成功興起。 // 問題A的內容政黨政府於1918年上台後就日趨貪腐，經常勾結財閥，藉此取得選舉經費以取得選舉勝利，結果使財閥至1930年時勢力極大，甚至壟斷了日本經濟，例如1930年時三井、三菱及住友在採礦業和交通運輸業的佔有率就高達63%，令中、小企業難以生存，導致了日人的不滿。此外，政黨政府於對外事務上也表現軟弱，例如在建立「偽滿洲國」一事上，由於政黨政府採取「不擴大方針」，故持反對的立場，結果導致軍方大為不滿，極端民族主義組織血盟團更刺殺了首相犬養毅，史稱「五一五事件」(1932年)，大大打擊了政黨政治的發展，往後所有首相均由軍人或貴族出任，軍國主義取得了極大的優勢。 // 小結可見，1930年代政黨政府的腐敗及軟弱使軍國主義於日本興起。
主旨句 相反，1930年代之前民主的氣氛十分濃厚，因此軍國主義未有興起。 // 問題B的內容在1910年代開始，日本的民主化運動發展迅速，例如1913年出現了第一次護憲運動，事後更廢止了軍部左右內閣成立的「軍部大臣現役武官制」，及後，原敬更於1918年成為首位政黨出身的首相，開展了政黨政治的發展。至1920年代，縱然1922-24年間，元老先後推薦了3位軍方或貴族背景的人士組閣，但由於當時民主氣氛十分濃厚，最終均迫使了軍人政府下台，事後更通過了《普通選舉法》，規定25歲或以上的男性擁有選舉權，使民主的氣氛充斥於日本社會，軍國主義未能於此時期興起。 // 小結因此，1930年代之前濃厚的民主氣氛使軍國主義難以興起，但隨著政黨政府表現日趨腐敗及軟弱，令民心盡失，最終才使軍國主義於1930年代得以興起。
經濟方面，1930年代日本經濟惡劣至極點，使軍國主義成功興起。由於日本於1920年代經歷了數次的經濟危機，至1929年發生全球的經濟大蕭條後，日本經濟因各國建立起貿易壁壘而大受打擊，出口量銳減，由1929-31年間總出口量下降了50%。同時，由於工廠倒閉，引致嚴重的失業，失業人數於1930年代初高達300萬人。惡劣的經濟環境大大導致了日人的不滿，日人更將經濟上的不景氣歸咎於政黨政府的無能，使政黨政府的形象更趨低落。反之，軍方則因主張對外擴張，例如對中國的「九一八事件」(1931年)及「一二八事件」(1932年)等而受到人民的支持，最終於1930年代成功興起。可見，1930年代惡劣的經濟環境使軍國主義興起。
相反，1930年代之前的經濟環境仍然未跌至谷底，軍國主義因而尚未興起。日本經濟於20世紀初發展蓬勃，早於日俄戰爭(1904-05年)中打敗俄國，獲得了原本俄國在中國山東的大部分利益。及後，又於一次大戰期間趁歐洲列強專注於歐洲戰事而壟斷了中國市場，並迫使袁世凱簽訂了《廿一條》(1915年)，大大擴大了在中國的利益，同時出口量大增，經濟發展迅速。雖然於1920年代起日本經歷了多次經濟危機，例如1923年關東大地震及1927年銀行危機，但由於日本本身的經濟實力強大，故仍能支撐下去，經濟並未跌於谷底，軍國主義也未能乘勢而起。因此，1930年代前的日本經濟環境並非助長軍國主義興起的理想溫床，但1929年經濟大蕭條為日本經濟送上致命一擊，導致日本經濟崩塌，最終有助軍國主義於1930年興起。
社會方面，1930年代極端民族主義情緒熾熱，使軍國主義興起。自1920年代末起，隨著政黨政府於經濟及外交上的表現日趨軟弱，主張利用暗殺手段以剷除政黨政治家的極端民族主義組織紛紛成立，例如愛國社(1928年)及血盟團(1930年)。這些極端民族主義組織成立後，利用暴力方式打擊政黨政治家，例如1930年愛國社成員佐鄉屋留雄襲擊首相濱口雄幸，以致濱口雄幸重傷，亦於次年死亡。及後，血盟團更於1932年發動了「五一五事件」，刺殺了首相犬養毅。連串的行刺嚴重打擊了政黨政治家的勢力，於「五一五事件」後，首相一職均由軍人或軍國主義者出任，象徵了政黨政治的結束。可見，極端民族主義的行刺行動使軍國主義於1930年代興起。
相反，1930年代之前極端民族主義情緒不夠高漲，以致軍國主義尚未興起。儘管早於20世紀初已經有極端民族主義組織成立，例如黑龍會(1901年)及在鄉軍人協會(1910年)等，然而，這些組織相對較為緩和，加上當時內閣由元老或貴族等出任，因此未有激起這些組織的不滿。至1910年代，隨著兩次護憲運動的出現(1913年；1924年)，加上原敬於1918年成為首位政黨出身的首相，極端民族主義開始一度式微，民主的氣氛開始出現。因此，在此氣氛下，軍國主義於1930年代之前尚未崛起，但至1930年代起，政黨政府的表現積弱，極端民族主義組織再次興起，並利用暴力方式打擊政黨政治家，最終才使軍國主義於1930年代興起。
外交方面，1930年代的外在形勢大大有助日本軍國主義的興起。隨著1920年代末起，國民黨的北伐成功使日本在中國的利益受到重大影響，加上美、英等列強不斷限制日本國力的發展，例如於1930年倫敦海軍會議中限制日本海軍的增長，使英、美、日的大型巡洋艦比例只得5：5：3，令政黨政府受到軍方及國內媒體的嚴厲批評。於「五一五事件」後，儘管軍人在政府中已經取得優勢，然而，當時軍方分為支持天皇的皇道派及支持法西斯體系的統制派兩個派別。當1933年日本欣羨及學習的德國也於變為法西斯國家後，人民更趨支持軍國主義，統制派於政府的勢力日大。至1936年皇道派發動「二二六事件」失敗後，統制派更取得了對政府的全面支配，遂恢復「軍部大臣現役武官制」，軍人再次能夠控制內閣的成立，仿傚德國的獨裁統治模式，使軍國主義者完全主宰了日本政壇。可見，1930年代的外在形勢大大有助軍國主義於1930年代的日本興起。
相反，1930年代之前的外在形勢未為軍國主義帶來有利形勢，使之未能成功興起。雖然1930年代之前也有列強歧視或針對日本的例子，例如日本於1921-22年華盛頓會議被迫交出中國山東的利益，以及美國於1924年禁止日本人移民到美國的《排外法案》。然而，當時日本的國際地位仍然崇高，因日本成為國聯的四個常任理事國之一，華盛頓會議也反映了日本是第3大海軍強國的地位，故日人的不滿有限。此外，即使意大利於1922年已經變成法西斯國家，但當時的法西斯主義發展仍然未成氣候，而日本所欣羨的德國也正實行民主的政治制度，令日人更支持象徵民主的政黨政府，軍國主義在此形勢下難以興起。因此，1920年代的外在形勢並非軍國主義興起的有利溫床，然而，至1930年代，外在形勢的改變使日人日趨支持軍國主義，使軍國主義興起。
總括而言，政治、經濟、社會及外交等情況的轉變使政黨政治逐步失去民心，相反，軍國主義盡得人民支持而聲勢日大，最終於1930年代成功興起。
Explain why militarism rose in Japan in the 1930s but not earlier.
Japan's political, economic, social and diplomatic situation changed a lot before and after the 1930s. These changes led to the rising popularity of militarism. Militarism thus rose in the 1930s. In the following essay, the above aspects will account for the reasons why militarism rose in the 1930s but not earlier.
In political aspect, the weaknesses of Japan's democratic government led to the rise of militarism. Starting from 1918, the democratic government had a number of corruption. Worse still, they colluded with the zaibatsu to gain political donations for elections, thus winning the elections. Graudally, the zaibatsu had huge influence and they even controlled Japan's economy. For example, the share of Mitsui三井, Mitsubishi三菱 and Sumitomo住友 in Japan's mining industry採礦業 and transportation交通運輸業 was as much as 63% in 1930. Small and medium-sized entreprises were difficult to develop and the middle class were not satisfied with the government. Besides, the weaknesses of Japan's government were also shown in diplomacy, one of which was the event of building ' Manchuguo'偽滿洲國. Since the government adopted non-expansionist policy不擴大方針, they held a firm stance that Japan should not set up the ' Manchuguo' in China. Eventually, the militarists felt discontent and the Brotherhood Blood League血盟團 even killed Inukai Tsuyoshi犬養毅, who was the Prime Minister at that time. The event was called the May 15th Incident五一五事件(1932). People soon lost support to the democratic government and the Prime Ministers after 1932 were occupied by genro or militarists. Militarism got widespread support. Hence, the weaknesses of Japan's democratic government led to the rise of militarism.
On the contrary, before the 1930s, democracy was prevalent so militarism did not rise. Starting from the 1910s, Japan's democratic movement developed rapidly. For example, the First Constitution Protection Movement第一次護憲運動 was carried out in 1913, during which the Military Ministers to be Active-Duty Officers Law軍部大臣現役武官制 was abolished. Later, Hara Kei原敬 even became the first civilian appointed as the Prime Minster. It started the era of party politics. Though in the 1920s, 1922-24 in particular, the genro元老 recommended 3 militarists to form the cabinet, militarism did not rise owing to the presence of democracy. The militarists were forced to step down eventually. In 1925, the General Election Law普通選舉法 was passed, under which men aged 25 or above had the right to vote. Democracy was prevailing, which prevented the rise of militarism. However, with the corruption and weaknesses shown by the government, people lost faith and allowed the rise of militarism.
In economic aspect, the economy of Japan was impoverished in the 1930s, which allowed the rise of militarim. Since Japan experienced several economic crises in the 1920s, the Great Depression經濟大蕭條 in 1929 even hit the economy of Japan hard. Japan's exports dropped a lot as a result of the trade barrier set up by the west. During 1929-31, the total exports decreased 50%. Meanwhile, many factories closed, resulting in serious unemployment problem. In 1930, the number of unemployed climbed to 3 million. The depressed economy bred discontent in the society. Most of the Japanese attributed the poor economy to the incapability of the government, which tarnished the reputation of the government. On the contrary, the militarists advocated expansionist policy, which gained people's support. For example, the September 18th Incident九一八事件(1931) and the January 28th Incident一二八事件(1932) showed expansionist policy was accepted by people. Militarism thus rose. Hence, the impoverished economy allowed the rise of militarism.
On the contrary, the economic situation before 1930s had not plunged to the bottom so militarism did not rise. Japan's economy flourished in the early 20th century. Japan succeeded in defeating Russia during the Russo-Japanese War日俄戰爭(1904-05), gaining interests in Shandong, where Russia stationed before. Later, when the European powers were busy fighting the First World War, Japan soon monopolised China's market. Japan even forced Yuan Shikai袁世凱 to sign the Twenty-One Demands廿一條 in 1915, expanding interests in China, which boosted the number of exports. Economy thus boosted. Though Japan suffered a number of economic crises such as the Great Kanto Earthquake關東大地震 and the Bank Crisis銀行危機in the 1920s, Japan was strong enough to resist the tough situation. Hence, Japan could still afford the poor economy. Militarism failed to rise. Hence, the poor economy before 1930 was not a hotbed for militarism to rise. It was the Great Depression that gave a devastating blow to Japan. Hence, this allowed the rise of militarism in the 1930s.
In social aspect, extreme nationalism rose in the 1930s, which contributed to the rise of militarism. Since the 1920s, as the democratic government showed its weakness and incapability in solving economic and diplomatic problems, extreme nationalist organizations advocating assassinations against party politicians had mushroomed. Examples were the Aikokusha愛國社(1928) and the Brotherhood of Blood League血盟團(1930). Upon their formation, these organizations used violent means against party politicians. For instance, in 1930, Tomeo Sagoya佐鄉屋留雄, a member of the Aikokusha愛國社, assaulted Prime Minister Osachi Hamaguchi濱口雄幸, causing severe injury to the head of state and his death in the subsequent year. After that, the Brotherhood of Blood League血盟團 staged the May 15th Incident五一五事件 in 1932, during which Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi犬養毅 was assassinated. A series of assassinations greatly undermined the influence of party politicians. After the May 15th Incident, positions in the Cabinet were mainly occupied by military officials and militarists and this marked the end of party politics. Hence, the rise of extreme nationalism led to the rise of militarism in the 1930s.
On the contrary, before the 1930s, the nationalism was not extreme enough, thus failing to rise. Although there were some extreme nationalist organizations such as the Black Dragon Society黑龍會(1901) and the Reserve Association在鄉軍人協會(1910) in the early 20th century, these organizations were relatively milder. At the same time, the genro and the samurai were the members of the cabinet. Hence, their presence did not provoke the discontent among the extreme nationalists. However, starting from 1910s, with the emergence of two Constitution Protection Movement兩次護憲運動(1913, 1924), as well as Hara Kei原敬 became the Prime Minister affiliated with political parties, extreme nationalism began to diminish with the pravailence of democracy. Hence, under the high degree of democracy in the society, militarism did not rise before 1930. Yet, after 1930, the weaknesses of Japan's democratic government were exposed, which allowed the rise of militarism, adopting violent means to crack down the party politicians. Eventually, militarism rose after 1930.
In diplomatic aspect, the international situation after 1930s was favorable to the rise of militarism. Starting from the late 1920s, the success of KMT during Northern Expedition in 1928 harmed the interests of Japan in China, together with the restrictions imposed on Japan by the US and Britain in navy, the democratic government was strongly criticized by the militarists and the media. For example, the London Naval Conference倫敦海軍會議 in 1930 restricted the naval strength of Japan by limiting the ratio on heavy cruisers, which was 5(US) : 5(Britain) : 3(Japan). Democratic governemtn lost support. After the May 15th Incident五一五事件, although the militarists had generally gained support from people, among the militarists, there were 2 groups of people, namely the Kōdōha皇道派 and the Tōseiha統制派, which supported Tenno and militarists respectively. When Japan learnt that Germany became a Fascist country in 1933, she was impressed and wanted to follow Germany, thus turning to support militarism. The Tōseiha gradually gained support. In 1936, when the Kōdōha launched the February 26th Incident二二六事件 but failed, the Tōseiha統制派 fully dominated the cabinet and restored the Military Ministers to be Active-Duty Officers Law, which enabled the military to manipulate the formation of the Cabinet in accordance to dictatorship in Germany. This allowed the militarists to fully dominate Japan’s politics. Hence, the international situation after 1930s allowed the rise of militarism.
On the contrary, the international situation before 1930 was infavorable to the rise of militarism. Militarism thus failed to rise. Undoubtedly, there were cases of Western countries discriminating against Japan. For example, in 1921-22, during the Washington Conference華盛頓會議, Japan was forced to return interests in Shandong. In 1924, the US passed the Immigration Act排外法案, under which Japanese were not allowed to immigrate to the US. However, given that Japan was still a strong country, being one of the permanent members常任理事國 of the League of Nations, Japan still enjoyed high international status. Washington Conference華盛頓會議 also revealed the fact that Japan was the third strongest country in navy. People's dissatisfaction towards the democratic government was not high enough for the rise of militarism. Besides, although Italy became a Fascist country法西斯國家 as early as 1922, Fascism had not developed at that period. Japan, regarding democratic Germany as a role model, made Japanese support democracy, as opposed to Fascism. Militarism was thus difficult to rise. Hence, the international situation in the 1920s was not a breeding ground for the rise of militarism. As for 1930s, owing to the change in international situation, Japanese turned to support militarism, allowing its rise.
To conclude, the changes in political, economic, social and diplomatic situation made the Japanese lose faith in the democratic government. On the contrary, militarists constantly won the support of Japanese, thus allowing the rise of militarism.
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