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原題目題號：DSE-2018-Essay-07(以日本作為例子)
「20世紀上半葉，日本的發展是延續多於轉變。」評論此說能否成立。
20世紀上半葉的日本經歷了翻天覆雨的轉變，日本由政黨政治的發展走向了軍國主義的獨裁管治，再至二次大戰戰敗後盟總政府接管，不同時期均為日本的發展帶來了滄海桑田的變化，使日本出現了新的景象。因此，日本在20世紀上半葉的發展是轉變多於延續。以下，將從政治、經濟、外交方面討論。
政治上延續而言，日本在20世紀上半葉的發展維持了帝制的特徵。由20世紀初的明治天皇，到1912-26年的大正天皇，再到後來的裕仁天皇，天皇一直作為日本的最高領袖角色而存在。儘管1945年盟總政府接管日本後，取消了天皇的實權，但卻保留了帝制，成為了政治上一直存在的特徵。
轉變方面，日本政治發展的特徵由民主轉變為專制，再重返民主路上。於20世紀初，日本政治逐步民主化，例如於1913年出現了第一次護憲運動，迫使政府需要廢除「軍部大臣現役武官制」，避免內閣再受軍部掌控。甚至，至1925年更加通過「普通選舉法」，允許年滿25歲的男性就擁有選舉權，推動了民主化的發展。然而，由1920年代中後期，隨著政黨日趨腐敗，軍國主義者開始抬頭，例如1932年「五一五事件」後，首相全由軍人出任，標誌著政黨政治的終結。至1940年，日本更成立了「大政翼贊會」以取締其他政黨，日本正式成為一黨專政國家，十分專制。到了1945年日本於二次大戰中戰敗，盟總政府接管日本，並為日本推行民主化改革，頒布《昭和憲法》(1947年)，提高下議院權力、允許成年男女均有投票權，正式為日本奠定民主化基礎。
相比之下，日本政治的轉變多於延續。就帝制而言，雖然帝制在表面上保留了下來，但天皇權力卻在1947年《昭和憲法》中被廢除，使天皇只是空有皇座，卻無實權，皇權已經由過往的實權轉變為無實權。再者，就轉變的情況而言，日本政治在20世紀上半葉幾經轉變，由民主發展走到軍國主義的專制時期，再到盟總時期重返民主路上，發展的特徵經歷曲折及轉變。可見，日本政治的發展確是轉變多於延續。
經濟上的延續而言，財閥在20世紀上半葉長時期均壟斷了日本經濟。自1868年明治政府成立後，由於財閥於倒幕一事上具有重大的貢獻，因此政府與財閥關係密切。於20世紀初的政黨政治時期，財閥的政治捐獻更是政黨選舉經費的主要來源。與政府密切的關係使財閥能獲得暴利，甚至壟斷經濟，例如1929年時，三井﹑三菱﹑住友﹑安田及第一等由財閥擁有的五大銀行佔全國銀行存款的34.5%。直至1946年前，少數的財閥基本上操控了日本的經濟，是20世紀上半葉在經濟上顯而易見的特徵。
轉變方面，日本經濟發展的特徵由急速擴張走向經濟衰退，再至重建發展。1920年代前，日本經濟發展欣欣向榮，例如於一次大戰大期趁西方列強專注戰事而壟斷了中國市場，結果使日本貿易額急速上升。然而，踏入1920年代，隨著西方列強重返中國市場，加上日本接連陷入經濟危機，包括1923年關東大地震、1927年銀行危機及1929年經濟大蕭條等，日本經濟千瘡百孔，失業人數更高達300萬人。儘管日本對中國的侵略有助取得了更多資源，但自1937年起日本全面對中國開戰，軍費開支大增，於1944年時更高達99%軍事開支，直接拖跨了日本經濟，加上戰時的破壞，日本經濟陷入蕭條。然而，至1940年代末，隨著盟總政府協助日本重建經濟，包括借出20億美元予日本及頒布《土地改革法》(1946年)等措施以解放農地，終令日本經濟逐步從谷底恢復過來。
相比之下，經濟上的轉變較延續多。就財閥而言，財閥儘管在一段頗長的時間內壟斷了日本經濟，但最終隨著盟總政府頒布《禁止壟斷法》及《企業再建整備法》等法令，財閥也難逃瓦解的命運，成為日本發展史上的一大轉捩點。同時，就發展的變化而言，日本經濟發展的特徵是波動不穩的，由蓬勃走向衰落，後來再從谷底攀升過來。可見，日本經濟發展的特徵也是轉變多於延續。
外交上的延續而言，日本與鄰國關係長期保持了惡劣的關係。日本與鄰近的中國、朝鮮等關係一直交惡，例如於1910年強迫朝鮮簽訂《日朝合併條約》，使朝鮮舉國不滿，一直抗拒日本的管治。同樣，日本於1915年迫使中國簽訂《廿一條》及於1919年巴黎和會獲取了中國山東的利益，也令中國國民強烈反抗。至1937年，日本發動「七七事變」，全面入侵中國，更加使兩國陷於戰爭狀況，關係惡化至極點。
轉變方面，日本外交發展由與資本主義國家交好改為與法西斯國家交好，再重返資本主義陣營，變化不斷。日本於20世紀初是與資本主義國家關係靠攏，例如早於1902年日本已與英國結成「英日同盟」；由資本主義國家為主導的國聯(1920年)中，日本也是常任理事國。然而，1920年代起，隨著日本國力日漸強大，資本主義國家對日本的猜忌及針對與日俱增，例如美國的《排外法案》(1924年)禁止日本人在內的黃種人移民到美國。結果，日本與資本主義國家關係日漸敵對，不但於1933年退出了國聯，後來更轉投到法西斯國家懷抱，於1937年與德、意簽定《柏林—羅馬—東京軸心》，及後在二次大戰中更聯同德、意等軸心國與英、美等資本主義國家交戰。至1945年戰敗後，日本被美國為首的盟總政府接管，令日本再次重返資本主義陣營，更成為了資本主義陣營對抗亞洲共產主義擴張的重要屏障。
相比之下，日本在外交上也是轉變多於延續。就日本與鄰國關係，儘管關係持續交惡，也並非一成不變，例如與中國關係，在日本發動1931年「九一八事變」前，中日關係也保持了平淡的關係，未至於開戰，是日本於1930年代頻頻對中國發動侵略，兩國關係再跌至谷底。而且，就整體性而言，由於1932-45年間日本被軍國主義操控，以致其外交出現了重大的轉變，遠離資本主義國家，向法西斯國家靠攏，此主導了日本外交方向，令日本外交出現了明顯的變化。可見，日本在外交上的轉變多於延續。
總括而言，20世紀上半葉的日本在政治、經濟、外交等方面也經歷了多次的轉變，轉變改變了原有的本質，使日本出現了迥然不同的面貌。因此，題目所言不能成立。
‘There were more continuities than changes with respect to the development of Japan in the first half of the 20th century.’ Comment on the validity of this statement.
Japan experienced dramatic changes in the first half of the 20th century, going from party politics to militarist dictatorship and to the SCAP occupation after its defeat in the Second World War. Each of these periods caused enormous changes to Japan’s development and brought about a new outlook of the country. Therefore, there were more continuities than changes with respect to Japan’s development in the first half of the 20th century. This essay is going to discuss this topic in political, economic and diplomatic aspects.
In terms of political continuities, Japan remained a monarchy throughout the first half of the 20th century. From Emperor Meiji明治天皇 in the early 20th century to Emperor Taisho大正天皇 in the period 1912-26 and his successor Emperor Showa裕仁天皇, the Emperor was always the supreme leader of Japan. Despite that the SCAP government stripped the Emperor of his power after occupying Japan in 1945, monarchy was retained as a political characteristic that existed throughout the period concerned.
In terms of changes, Japan’s political development changed from a democratic one to an autocratic one and eventually back to democratization. In the early 20th century, Japan was gradually democratized politically, as exemplified by the First Constitution Protection Movement第一次護憲運動 in 1913 that compelled the Japanese government to abolish the Military Ministers to be Active-Duty Officers Law軍部大臣現役武官制 and rid the Cabinet of military control. In addition, in 1925, the General Election Law普通選舉法 was passed to grant the right to vote to men aged 25 or above, facilitating democratic development. However, in the mid-late 1920s, the corruption of party politics led to the rise of militarism. For instance, the May 15 Incident五一五事件 of 1932, after which the post of prime minister had been filled solely by military personnel, marked the end of party politics. In 1940, the Imperial Rule Assistance Association大政翼贊會 was established to replace all political parties and officially make Japan a one-party dictatorship that was extremely autocratic. It was until Japan’s defeat in the Second World War in 1945 that the SCAP government occupied the country and introduced democratization measures, including enacting the Showa Constitution昭和憲法, increasing the power of the House of Representatives and granting the right to vote to all adult men and women, to lay a proper foundation for democracy in Japan.
In comparison, there were more changes than continuities in Japan in political aspect. In terms of monarchy, despite superficial continuity of the monarchical system, the Emperor lost his power according the Showa Constitution昭和憲法 of 1947 and had since been merely a ceremonial symbolic role no longer enjoying actual power. In addition, in terms of changes, Japan’s politics experienced different changes in the period concerned, going through democratic development, militarist rule with autocracy and the return of democratization in the SCAP period. Its development was characterized by these ups and downs. Therefore, there were clearly more changes than continuities regarding Japan’s political development.
In terms of economic continuities, the zaibatsu monopolized the Japanese economy for a long period of time in the first half of the 20th century. Since the restoration of the Meiji imperial rule in 1868, the government had had a close relationship with the zaibatsu due to their significant contributions to the anti-bakufu movement倒幕運動. Also, during the era of party politics in the early 20th century, political donations from the zaibatsu were the major sources of campaign contributions. The zaibatsu took advantage of their close relationship with the government to make huge profits and even established a monopoly on the economy. For example, in 1929, the five biggest banks, owned by the zaibatsu Mitsui三井, Mitsubishi三菱, Sumitomo住友, Yasuda安田 and Daiichi第一, controlled 34.5% of Japan’s deposits. Before 1946, a small group of financial cliques controlled significant parts of the Japanese economy. This was a distinct characteristic of Japan’s economy in the first half of the 20th century.
In terms of changes, Japan’s economic development changed from rapid expansion to recession and eventually to recovery. Before the 1920s, Japan’s economy thrived and its exports greatly increased due to its monopolization of the Chinese market when the Western powers were preoccupied with the First World War. However, in the 1920s, with the return of the Western powers to the Chinese market and different economic crises such as the Great Kanto Earthquake關東大地震 of 1923, Bank Crisis銀行危機 of 1927 and Great Depression經濟大蕭條 of 1929, the Japanese economy was ailing and more than 3 million people were unemployed. It was true that Japan’s invasion of China made more resources available to the former; nevertheless, Japan’s full-scale invasion of China beginning in 1937 led to a surge in military spending, which made up of as much as 99% of its national budget in 1944, and overwhelmed the Japanese economy. In addition to wartime destruction, Japan experienced economic recession as a result. However, towards the end of the 1940s, the SCAP government aided Japan to rebuild its economy by providing loans of US$2 billion and promulgating the Land Reform Act土地改革法(1946) to release farmland, reviving Japan’s economy after it reached rock bottom.
In comparison, there were more changes than continuities in economic aspect. In terms of the zaibatsu財閥, they did exercise a monopoly on the Japanese economy for a long period of time but they all collapsed after the SCAP government enacted the Anti-Monopoly Act禁止壟斷法, Enterprise Reorganization Act and other anti-zaibatsu regulations企業再建整備法, which contributed to a major turning point in Japan’s course of development. Also, in terms of changes in development, Japan’s economic development was characterized by ups and downs, going from prosperity to recession and finally bouncing back from rock bottom. Therefore, there were also more changes than continuities regarding Japan’s economic development.
In terms of diplomatic continuities, Japan’s relationships with the neighboring countries remained strained. There had been long-standing hostility between Japan and countries such as China and Korea. For example, in 1910, Japan forced Korea to sign the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty日朝合併條約, which upset the whole nation and made the Korean people resistant to Japanese rule. Meanwhile, Japan also forced China to accept the Twenty-One Demands廿一條 in 1915 and acquired the concessions in Shandong山東, China at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, attracting fierce criticisms from the Chinese people. In 1939, Japan even staged the July 7 Incident七七事變 and started its full-scale invasion of China. The two countries became belligerent and their relationship could not be worse.
In terms of diplomatic changes, Japan changed its allies from capitalist countries to Fascist countries, and eventually back to members of the capitalist bloc. In the early 20th century, Japan was friendly to capitalist countries. For instance, Japan formed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance英日同盟 with Britain in 1902, and joined the League of Nations, a predominantly capitalist organization, as one of the four permanent members常任理事國 of the Council. However, after the 1920s, Japan became increasingly powerful and attracted skepticism as well as discrimination from capitalist countries, as exemplified by the Immigration Act排外法案 of 1924 to ban immigration to America from Asian countries, including Japan. This resulted in increasing hostility between Japan and capitalist countries, which prompted the former to withdraw from the League in 1933 and ally itself with Fascist countries. Subsequently, Japan formed the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis柏林—羅馬—東京軸心 with Italy and Germany in 1937 and fought in the Second World War as part of the Axis Powers against capitalist countries such as Britain and the US. After its defeat in 1945, Japan was occupied by the U.S.-led SCAP government and joined back the capitalist bloc as an important buffer against the spread of communism in Asia.
In comparison, there were again more changes than continuities in diplomatic aspect for Japan. In terms of its relationships with the neighboring countries, they were strained but not immune to change. As for Japan-China relations, before Japan staged the September 18 Incident九一八事變 in 1931, their relations remained stable and never became so bad that the two countries would go to war. It was Japan’s repeated invasions of China in the 1930s that worsened their relations to a point of no return. Also, from a holistic perspective, Japan under militarist rule in the period 1932-45 experienced a major shift in foreign policy from being friendly to capitalist countries to making Fascist allies. This shift altered the direction of Japan’s diplomatic policy and caused significant changes in diplomatic aspect. Therefore, there were more changes than continuities regarding Japan’s diplomatic development.
In conclusion, in the first half of the 20th century, Japan experienced different changes in political, economic, diplomatic and other aspects, which fundamentally changed Japan into a distinctly different nation. Therefore, what the question suggests is not valid.
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