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原題目題號：DSE-樣本試卷-Essay-06
聯合國在解決20世紀下半葉的環境問題一事上取得了多大成效？
背景 環境問題於20世紀期間急速惡化，為應對環境問題，聯合國作出了積極的努力以保育環境。 // 架構雖然其未能根治部分環境問題及消除分歧，但卻成功喚起了國際社會對環境問題的關注、建立起規模化的合作和緩和了部分環境問題。 // 立場因此，聯合國在解決環境問題上雖有不足，但亦取得了頗大的成效，在環境保育一事上具有劃時代的意義。
主旨句 其一，聯合國成功喚起了國際社會對環境問題的關注，成效顯著。 // 段落內容1972年前，國際社會對於環境保育的意識較低，環境問題並非國際社會討論的焦點議題。然而，至1972年，聯合國召開了聯合國人類環境會議，參與國家達113個，會議中承認了環境問題為一嚴重的問題，使環境保育成為往後國際社會著重解決的議題。此外，會議亦將每年6月5日定為「世界環境日」，並於每年建立不同的主題，例如是水資源、沙漠化，讓各國政府因應每年的主題而展開宣傳，有助提高各國人民對環境問題的關注。再者，聯合國繼續作出努力以提高各國政府及人民的環境保育意識，例如1987年的《布倫德蘭報告》提出了「可持續發展」的概念，平衡社會﹑環境和經濟三方面的發展，成為了各國政府制訂政策的重要方向，大大喚起了各國對環境保育的關注。 // 小結可見，聯合國成功喚起了國際社會對環境問題的關注，使各國開始著手解決問題。
其二，聯合國成功建立起規模化的合作，取得了重大的成效。於聯合國環境規劃署(1972年)未成立前，國際間對於解決環境問題所成立的條約及組織規模較小，作用也相對較小。然而，至1972年聯合國環境規劃署成立後，其開始統籌環保工作，有系統地召開會議及簽訂條約以解決環境問題，使國際間建立起規模化的合作以應對環境問。例如，在氣候問題上，聯合國環境規劃署於1992年召開了里約地球高峰會，提出了《氣候變化綱要公約》，要求各國以自願方式減少溫室氣體的排放。及後，聯合國於1997年制定了《京都議定書》，規定已發展國家在2010年的六種溫室氣體排放量需要較1990年減少5.2%，使各國的合作由自願性質逐步轉變至強制性質。可見，聯合國建立起規模化的合作以應對環境問題，成效顯著。
其三，聯合國成功緩和了部分環境問題，成效不容忽視。於聯合國環境規劃署成立後，其致力解決環境問題，保育環境。在其不懈的努力下，部分環境問題已經得到緩和，例如臭氧層問題方面，於承認臭氧層被破壞後，聯合國環境規劃署隨即制訂方案以解決該問題，先於1985年在維也納舉行會議，簽訂了《保護臭氧層維也納公約》，限制使用破壞臭氧層的化學物品(氟里昂)。及後，又於此基礎上，提出了《蒙特利爾議定書》(1987年)，要求簽署國進一步限制使用氟里昂，大大減低了各國使用氟里昂的數量，使臭氧層問題穩定下來。可見，聯合國有助緩和部分環境問題，取得了一定的成果。
雖然聯合國在解決環境問題上取得了顯著的成效，但亦未能忽視其局限。
首先，部分環境問題仍然未能有效解決，故聯合國的努力仍然存有局限。雖然聯合國於解決環境問題上已經取得了重大的成效，但部分問題仍然未能完全根治。例如，在全球暖化的問題上，縱使聯合國已經逐步強制會員國減少溫室氣體的排放，但直至2000年時，全球暖化的問題仍然嚴重，全球氣溫仍然不斷上升。此外，在瀕臨物種的議題上，雖然聯合國已經作出多番努力以保護瀕臨物種，例如於1992年里約地球高峰會中，要求參與國簽訂《生物多樣性公約》以保護生物多樣性，但瀕臨物種在人為獵殺及環境破壞的情況下，整體數量仍然下降。可見，儘管聯合國有助緩和環境問題，但卻未能完全根治此等問題，故存有局限。
其次，聯合國未能解決各國在發展經濟及保育環境方面的分歧，使成效存有局限。雖然聯合國雖然已經提出了「可持續發展」的概念，試圖平衡環境、經濟及社會的發展，但國際社會對於保護環境與發展經濟之間仍然存有極大的分歧，使國際社會未能通力合作以根治環境問題。例如在發展中國家方面，大部分發展中國家不願犧牲經濟利益以保護環境，積極砍伐森林以開闢土地，使大面積的森林受到破壞，其中亞馬遜雨林在1990-2000年間的10年間，受破壞的面積增加了41%，令保育森林方面的努力遇到重大的阻礙。此外，已發展國家方面，部分已發展國家也不願放慢經濟發展的步伐，例如美國、澳洲等國家就於《京都議定書》(1997年)推出時拒絕加入，聯合國也因需要尊重各國的意願而無計可施。可見，聯合國未能解決部分國家在發展經濟及保育環境上的分歧，故存有局限。
總括而言，儘管部分環境問題和分歧仍然存在，局限了聯合國努力的成效。然而，聯合國已經成功喚起國際社會對於環境保育的關注，以及建立起規模化的合作及緩和了部分環境問題，取得了頗大的成效，使全球各國共同建立努力以應對環境問題，是環境保育歷史上的重要里程碑，意義非凡，取得了頗大的成效。
字數：1,862
« 由於上文論點同時具有「緩和部分問題」和「未能根治部分問題」雙方論點，因此同學於總結部分應交代清楚衡量成效的方向是依據整體的意義(使全球各國共同建立努力以應對環境問題，是環境保育歷史上的重要里程碑，意義非凡)。
How effective was the United Nations in solving environmental problems that happened in the second half of the 20th century?
The environmental problems became more and more serious in the 20th century. In order to cope with these problems, the United Nations put a lot of efforts in conserving the environment. Although it failed to eradicate some of the problems totally and eliminate divergence, it successfully aroused attention of the international community, promoted cooperation on an international scale and alleviated some of the environmental problems. Therefore, despite the United Nations had some limitations in solving the problems, it had huge effectiveness in solving them. It had great significance in environmental protection issue.
Firstly, the United Nations successfully aroused attention of the international community towards environmental problems and was quite effective. Before 1972, the international community was less aware of the importance of environmental conservation. Environmental problems were not the major focus of discussion in the world. However, in 1972, the United Nations held the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. There were 113 countries participating in it. The participating nations admitted that the environmental problem was a serious issue in which the international community started to focus on its conservation. Also, 5 June was set as the World Environment Day in the conference. Different themes were set every year, for instance, water resources and desertification. Governments of countries could launch promotions in accordance to the themes. This could increase the awareness of people to the environmental problems. Moreover, the United Nations put effort to increase the consciousness of people and governments towards environmental conservation. For instance, the Brundtland Report in 1987 introduced the concept of ‘sustainable development’ which advocated the balance in developing society, environment and economy. It became an important direction for governments to enact policies and this greatly aroused countries’ consciousness towards environmental conservation. These show the United Nations successfully aroused the attention of international community towards environmental problems, and allowed countries to start alleviating them.
Secondly, the United Nations successfully promoted cooperation on an international scale and was very effective. Before the establishment of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (1972), the scale of treaties and organizations set up for solving environmental problems were relatively small. Similarly, their effectiveness was relatively limited. However, after the establishment of UNEP, it started to make an overall plan for environmental work, organized meetings and signed treaties systematically for solving environmental problems. For instance, UNEP held the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 and introduced the ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’. The convention demanded countries to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases voluntarily. After that, the United Nations enacted the ‘Kyoto Protocol’ in 1997 which demanded more developed countries to reduce the emission of six types of greenhouses gases by 5.2% in 2010 as compared to 1990. It transformed the cooperation of countries from voluntary basis to a mandatory one. These show the United Nations promoted cooperation to an international scale in dealing with the environmental problems, which had great significance.
Thirdly, the United Nations successfully alleviated some of the environmental problems, and its effectiveness could not be neglected. After the establishment of UNEP, it worked so hard in solving the environmental problems and conserved the environment. Under its untiring efforts, some of the environmental problems were alleviated. For instance, the problem of ozone layer could prove such point. After recognizing the damage of ozone layer, the UNEP formulated proposal to solve the problem immediately. A conference was held in Vienna in 1985 and the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was signed. It restricted the use of chemical substance which damaged the ozone layer (Freon). After that, the Montreal Protocol (1987) was signed under such basis. It demanded the signees to further restrict the use of Freon and this greatly reduced their amount of chemical substance used. These efforts eventually stabilized the problem of ozone layer. These show the United Nations could alleviate some of the environmental problems and made some achievements.
Although the United Nations had great significance in solving the environmental problems, its limitations could not be neglected.
Firstly, some environmental problems could not be solved because of the limitations existed in the work of United Nations. Although the United Nations contributed a lot in alleviating environmental problems, some of them could not be totally solved. For instance, in the global warming issue, the United Nations had gradually forced the member countries to reduce emission of greenhouse gases. However, as at 2000, the global warming problem was still very serious and the world’s temperature rose continuously. Moreover, in the issue of endangered species, the United Nations worked hard in protecting them. For instance, in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, participating countries had to sign the ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ to ensure the biodiversity. However, the overall number of endangered species still fell because of hunting by humans and damage of the environment. These show that although the United Nations could alleviate the environmental problems, some problems could not be totally solved, and limitations did exist.
Secondly, the United Nations failed to solve the divergence among countries on the development of economy and conservation of the environment, which limited its effectiveness. The United Nations put forward the idea of ‘sustainable development’ which attempted to balance the development of environment, economy and society. However, international community had huge divergence in the protection of environment and development of economy. This made them failed to cooperate wholeheartedly and solved the environmental problems. For instance, most of the developed countries were unwilling to sacrifice their economic interests for protecting the environment. They excessively cut down trees to clear land for other purposes, and this damaged large area of forests. Just like the Amazon Rainforest, the area that was damaged increased by 41% in ten years from 1990 to 2000. It created huge barrier in the conservation of forests. Moreover, as for the developed countries, some of them were unwilling to slow down their economic development. For instance, countries like the US and Australia rejected to sign the ‘Kyoto Protocol’ (1997). The United Nations could do nothing with that because it must respect their choices. These show the UN failed to settle the clash between economic development and environmental conservation among some countries and limitations existed.
To sum up, some environmental problems and divergence existed which limited the effectiveness of the United Nations. However, the United Nations successfully aroused the attention of international community in conserving the environment, promoted cooperation on an international scale and alleviated some environmental problems. Such actions were very effective. The United Nations also united the efforts of countries in dealing with the environmental problems. It was an important milestone in conserving the environment. The United Nations was very effective in solving environmental problems in the period concerned.
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