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原題目題號：DSE-樣本試卷-Essay-07 (以德國和法國為例子)
追溯並解釋德國和法國在20世紀期間的關係發展。
德、法關係於20世紀初的交惡發展至20世紀末的友好，其中經歷了多重的波折。整體而言，兩國於20世紀期間的關係可劃分為4個階段，分別是交惡期(1900-18)、緩和期(1919-32)、衝突再起期(1933-39)、改善及友好期(1945-99)。
首先，1900-18年是法、德關係的交惡期。於此時期，法、德兩國不單在同盟及軍事上互相對抗，更出現衝突及戰爭，關係十分惡劣。在同盟方面，德國建立的三國同盟(1882年)與法國組成的三國協約(1907年)互相抗衡，互相敵視。而且，在軍事方面，德國制訂的施里芬計劃與法國制訂的十七號計劃均視對方為假想敵，有向對方開戰的準備。再者，兩國在20世紀初曾爆發多次衝突，包括1905年及1911年兩次摩洛哥危機，德國更於第二次摩洛哥危機出動黑豹艦隊威嚇法國，反映兩國關係緊張。更甚，於1914年塞拉耶佛危機後，法國支持俄國對抗德、奧，德國則落實施里芬計劃攻打法國，兩國的關係已經惡化至爆發戰爭的程度。可見，德、法於1900-18年間關係交惡。
德國基於殖民地因素和法國基於民族仇恨而使兩國關係交惡。德國方面，自德皇威廉二世於1890年上台後，其銳意擴張殖民地，對於北非的摩洛哥更是虎視眈眈。然而，法國在摩洛哥擁有龐大的勢力，結果，摩洛哥的歸屬問題就導致了兩國發生兩次摩洛哥危機，使兩國關係緊張。法國方面，由於法國於普法戰爭(1870-71)中戰敗予德國，被迫簽訂了喪權辱國的《法蘭克福條約》，結果使法國衍生出對德國強烈的復仇主義，一直希望報復德國以一雪前恥。最終，法國於1914年塞拉耶佛危機中甚至支持俄國對德國開戰，結果成為兩國交戰的重要成因。
第二階段是德、法關係的緩和期(1919-32)。德、法兩國於此時期雖然仍有出現磨擦，但關係相對之前的時期已經大大緩和，更簽訂了和平條約，關係有所改善。儘管一次大戰後，法、比兩國曾於1923年進軍德國魯爾區，佔據了魯爾，德、法關係一度緊張起來。然而，除了此衝突外，兩國於此時期並無爆發太大的危機，雙方更分別於1925年簽訂了規定德、法、比三國邊界的《羅加諾公約》及於1928年簽訂了承諾以非戰爭方式作為國策的《凱格—白里安公約》，合力營造出「歐洲的蜜月期」。可見，德、法於此時期的關係已經有所緩和。
法國基於經濟因素和德國基於外交因素而塑造了此階段的緩和期。經濟因素影響了法國在此時期的外交政策，因法國受一次大戰的破壞，經濟千瘡百孔，因此希望避免與其他國家發生衝突，致力專注於經濟發展。然而，法國也會為捍衛其經濟利益而作出強硬的行動，例如當1923年德國未能償還《凡爾賽條約》的賠款時，法國就與比利時聯軍進佔德國魯爾區，使德、法於此時期出現零星的衝突。德國方面，德國希望擺脫一次大戰後的外交孤立狀況，故積極改善與其他國家的關係，例如主動建議簽定《羅加諾公約》以規定德國西邊的邊界，減低周遭國家的猜忌，令德、法的關係大大得到緩和。
第三階段是德、法關係再次交惡的時期(1933-45)。德、法於此時期關係再次惡化起來，不單在軍備方面存有爭執，更再次爆發戰爭，關係十分惡劣。在軍備問題上，德國及法國在1932年開始的日內瓦會議中就裁軍問題爭持不下，雙方均要求對方先行裁軍，最終談話破裂，德國更於1933年退出會議以示不滿。及後，法國對於1935年德國重新實行徵兵制及1936年將萊茵河軍事化的舉動也表示強烈不滿，反映德、法兩國在軍事問題上常有爭執。更甚，隨著德國於1939年突襲波蘭，法國聯同英國向德國開戰，德、法再次交戰，顯示雙方關係已經惡化至極點。可見，德、法關係交惡，甚至再次爆發戰爭。
法國因軍備因素和德國因希特拉的上台而使兩國關係再次交惡。法國一直都恐懼德國會死灰復燃，再次挑起戰爭，故對於德國軍事上的舉動態度強硬，包括於日內瓦會議中指明要求德國再次裁軍，法國才會裁軍。結果，雙方在軍備問題爭持不下，更令到會議不歡而散，德、法關係也因此而再次緊張起來。德國方面，由於納粹希特拉於1933年上台，其主張撕毀《凡爾賽條約》，積極擴張領土，結果導致法國大為顧忌。最終，正正基於希特拉領導下的德國於1939年突襲波蘭，令法國需要聯同英國共同箝制德國，對德開戰，使德、法再次陷入戰爭關係。
最後，1946-99年是德、法關係的改善及友好時期。二次大戰後，德國及法國的關係逐步改善，不但建立了友好的關係，更於歐洲統合上積極合作。在建立關係方面，兩國於1963年簽訂了《德法合作條約》以確立雙方的友好關係。至後，更於1988年共同建立了安全及國防會議，將兩國的合作擴展至軍事層面。同時，兩國亦在歐洲統合上積極進行合作，例如於1952年建立了歐洲煤鋼共同體，及往的歐洲經濟共同體(1958年)、歐洲共同體(1967年)及歐盟(1993年)等，德、法均是核心成員國，兩國的合作有增無減，至20世紀末已經建立了緊密的友好關係。可見，德、法關係於1945-99年間關係趨向友好發展。
法國基於外交因素及德國基於經濟因素而使兩國於此時期關係改善。隨著二次大戰後，美國在歐洲的影響力大增，其中透過馬歇爾計劃(1948年)及北約(1949年)控制了西歐的經濟及軍事。為了擺脫美國的影響力和避免捲入美、蘇的冷戰局面，法國希望拉攏歐洲大陸的國家建立經濟同盟，因此與德國等西歐國家建立了歐洲煤鋼共同體、歐洲經濟共同體等組織，使德、法關係愈趨密切。德國方面，德國經濟在第二次世界大戰中受到重大的破壞，加上戰後被分裂為東德及西德，西德為求復甦經濟，希望積極加強與其他國家的經濟合作，故與法國共同建立了多個經濟組織，使德、法關係大趨改善，更於20世紀末發展至緊密的友好關係。
總括而言，德、法兩國的關係於20世紀上半葉關係惡劣，兩國更於兩次大戰中成為交戰國。然而，二次大戰後，雙方關係逐漸改善，更於20世紀末確立了穩定和友好的關係。
Trace and explain the development of the relations between Germany and France in the 20th century.
The relations between Germany and France, changing from poor to friendly throughout the 20th century, experienced a number of obstacles and difficulties. The course of development can be divided into four broad stages characterized by antagonism (1900-18), relaxed relations (1919-32), resumed conflicts (1933-39) and improvement leading to friendliness (1945-99) respectively.
First of all, the years 1900-18 were recognized as the period of antagonism between the two nations, in which they did not only join rival alliances and be in military confrontation, but they also came into battles and conflicts. Their relations were extremely poor. Concerning alliances, the Triple Alliance三國同盟 formed by Germany and the Triple Entente三國協約 established by France were hostile towards each other. While in military aspect, Germany and France pre-assumed each other as foe and were poised to fight with the other as suggested by the Schlieffen Plan施里芬計劃 and Plan 17十七號計劃. Also, several conflicts arose between them in the early 20th century, including the two Moroccan Crises兩次摩洛哥危機 of 1905 and 1911. Germany even dispatched its gunboat Panther黑豹艦隊 during the Second Moroccan Crisis to deter France from further action. This reveals the tension between them. Furthermore, after the Sarajevo Incident塞拉耶佛危機 of 1914, France supported Russia against Germany and Austria, while Germany actualized the Schlieffen Plan施里芬計劃 and attacked France. Their relations were at a point that was bad enough for a war. These show that they were antagonistic to each other in the period 1900-18.
The German colonial factor and national enmity of France were the causes of their poor relations. Speaking about Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm II威廉二世 was eager to establish new colonies after his accession in 1890, especially in Morocco摩洛哥 in North Africa. But France had huge influence over his target and the dispute over it led to the two Moroccan Crises兩次摩洛哥危機. As for France, it was defeated by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War普法戰爭(1870-71) and was required to sign the Treaty of Frankfurt法蘭克福條約, which was so humiliating that it induced strong revanchism復仇主義 and the hope of retaliation among the French. As a result, France supported Russia in starting a war against Germany during the Sarajevo Incident塞拉耶佛危機 of 1914, causing direct armed conflict between them.
In the second stage (1919-32), their relations were improved and became more relaxed. There was still friction between the two, but their relationship was much better than it was earlier and peace treaties were signed to improve it. It is true that after WW1, the occupation of the German Ruhr valley魯爾區 by France and Belgium in 1923 created short-lived tension between the two countries. However, there was no significant crisis other than that during this period. Further, the two European countries signed the Locarno Treaties羅加諾公約 in 1925 to confirm the borders of Belgium and them, and the Kellogg-Briand Pact凱格—白里安公約 to renounce war as an instrument of diplomatic policy. They created the ‘honeymoon period for Europe’ 歐洲的蜜月期 collectively and this reflects the rather relaxed relations between them.
France’s economic factor and Germany’s diplomatic factor shaped the improvement of relationship in this period. Economic concerns influenced France’s foreign policy because the European country, suffering the destruction brought by WW1, had an ailing economy and needed to prevent conflicts with other countries so as to put full effort on economic recovery. But still, France took firm actions to defend its economic interests. For example, when Germany failed to pay the reparations declared by the Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約 in 1923, France invaded the Ruhr魯爾 together with Belgium. Therefore, sporadic conflicts could be observed at that time. As for Germany, it wanted to escape from diplomatic isolation that started after WW1 and thus eagerly improved its relationship with other countries. For instance, Germany itself proposed the Locarno Treaties羅加諾公約 to nail down its western border and ease suspicion of the neighbouring countries, improving its relations with France greatly.
The third stage (1933-45) was the period when they resumed poor relationship with each other illustrated by not only armament issues but also a war. Concerning armaments, Germany and France refused to make any concessions on disarmament and wanted the other to have arms control first in the Geneva Conference日內瓦會議 starting in 1932. The conference achieved nothing and Germany even withdrew in protest against it in 1933. France also expressed its strong disapproval of German reintroduction of conscription徵兵制 in 1935 and remilitarization of the Rhineland萊茵河軍事化 in 1936. These show that the two countries had repeated military disputes. Furthermore, in response to German incursion into Poland波蘭 in 1939, France together with Britain declared war on Germany and the two nations became belligerents again. The antagonism between them reached its peak. It is clear that they had a bad relationship with a recurrence of war.
Because of France’s military concerns and Hitler’s rise to power, their relations turned bad again. France had worried about the possible resurgence of German power that would lead to another war. Therefore, it took a hard line on Germany’s military arrangements. For example, in the Geneva Conference日內瓦會議, it stated clearly that Germany’s disarmament was needed for France to follow suit. They could not reach a consensus and the conference was spoiled with tension added to their relations. In Germany, Hitler希特拉 from the Nazi Party came to power in 1933 and he advocated the abolishment of the Versailles Treaty凡爾賽條約 and aggressive territorial expansion. This aroused France’s suspicion much. At last, Germany under Hitler’s leadership launched a sudden attack on Poland波蘭 in 1939 and that was exactly why France needed to work together with Britain to stop German aggression and declare war on it. The two nations were once again in belligerence.
Finally, the years 1946-99 were the period when their relations improved to be friendly. After the Second World War, their relations were improving with not only resumed friendliness but also cooperation in European integration. In terms of relationship building, the two nations signed the Elysee Treaty德法合作條約 in 1963 to establish a friendly relationship, and they founded the Franco-German Defense and Security Council安全及國防會議 in 1988 that extended their partnership in the military field. In European integration, they also proactively worked with each other. For example, they established the European Coal and Steel Community歐洲煤鋼共同體 in 1952 and were core members of organizations commenced afterwards like the European Economic Community歐洲經濟共同體(1958), European Community歐洲共同體(1967) and European Union歐盟(1993). Their partnership only went up and a close friendship was established by the end of the 20th century. It is Clear that France-German relations became more and more friendly in the period 1945-99.
The improvement in relationship was caused by the diplomatic and economic factors of France and Germany respectively. After WW2, the US enjoyed soaring influence over Europe and controlled Western Europe economically and militarily through the Marshall Plan馬歇爾計劃(1948) and NATO北約(1949). In order to get rid of its influence and stay away from the Cold War between the USSR and it, France looked for an economic union in Europe and established the ECSC歐洲煤鋼共同體 and EEC歐洲經濟共同體 with Germany and other Western European countries. This led to an increasingly close relationship between the two countries. As for Germany, its economy was wrecked during WW2 and it was split into the eastern and western parts after that. In the hope of economic recovery, West Germany wanted to strengthen its economic cooperation with other countries and thus set up several economic organizations with France. As a result, their relations improved greatly and became close and friendly by the end of the 20th century.
Overall, Franco-German relations were poor in the first half of the 20th century and they were belligerents in the two world wars. But after WW2, their relations improved gradually to a stable and friendly one by the late 20th century.
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