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第一次世界大戰在什麼程度上是現代西方歷史的一個轉捩點？試以1930年代為限，加以討論。
背景 第一次世界大戰(1914-18年)是人類歷史上首次多國參與的世界性戰爭，其規模之大在當時可謂是史無前例。 // 架構及立場其中，西方國家作為主要的參戰國，戰爭對其影響更加是舉足輕重，不僅使歐洲地位衰落、極權主義興起、美蘇趨向孤立，同時也使首個國際維和機構成立，在大程度上是現代西方歷史的轉捩點。
主旨句 一次大戰使歐洲地位衰落，為一轉捩點。 // 核心點前一次大戰前，歐洲是世界上最繁榮的地方，其中英國倫敦是世界經濟中心，而英、德、法等歐洲列強更加是主宰了世界命運的發展，操控了眾多的殖民地，至於美國和日本等美洲和亞洲強國則只是被視為是次一等的強國，地位高低立見。 // 核心點的影響及核心點後的情況 然而，隨著歐洲列強在一次大戰元氣大傷，英、法等戰勝國的國力也大不如前，至於戰敗的傳統四大帝國(德、奧匈、俄、鄂圖曼)更加相繼瓦解，歐洲對世界的主導地位開始崩潰。同時，美國、日本等國家未有戰爭的直接影響而保存實力，美國甚至乎於戰時大量借貸予歐洲國家而成為新的世界經濟中心，國力甚至凌駕歐洲國家。戰後，歐洲國家國力大減，例如德國僅得10萬軍隊、奧匈帝國被分裂成為奧地利和匈牙利。同時，美、日一躍而上，例如在華盛頓會議的裁軍協議中，英、美、日、法、意的軍艦比例為5：5：3：1.75：1.75，反映歐洲國家的主導地位已被美國、日本追平，甚至超越。 // 對比相比之下，歐洲於一次大戰前是世界的政治、經濟中心，地位超然，但一次大戰造成了重大破壞使歐洲地位衰落，美國、日本等國家足已與歐洲平分秋色，美國的經濟實力更超越了歐洲國家，可見是一個重大的轉捩點。
一次大戰導致極權主義的興起，為一轉捩點。一次大戰前，法西斯主義、共產主義等極權主義在歐、美等地尚未成氣候，例如在俄國以列寧為首的布爾什維克未能成功推翻沙皇皇朝。而且，當時許多國家都循資本主義憲政制度邁進，例如德國於1871年實行憲法等。然而，至一次大戰時，惡劣形勢成為了極權主義滋長的溫床。例如俄國在戰爭中節節敗退，最終國內革命四起，1917年的十月革命更推翻了資本主義政府，建立起世界第一個共產主義政權。同時，德國在戰後被迫接受喪權辱國的《凡爾賽條約》和意大利在巴黎和會中未能取得阜姆等地，驅使了法西斯主義思想在德、意等地的滋長。戰後，極權主義浪潮席捲歐洲。除了蘇聯透過共產國際積極傳播共產主義思想外，法西斯陣營的意大利墨索里尼和德國希特拉先後於1922年及1933年取得政權，及後更幫助佛朗哥將軍在西班牙內戰中取得政權，法西斯思想在歐洲迅速傳播。相比之下，共產主義在一戰前未能推翻任何一個國家政權，而且當時西方國家走向民主化，法西斯主義發展受限，但一次大戰所造成的差劣環境成為了極權主義滋長的溫床，共產主義和法西斯政權相繼建立，成為了西方歷史的重大轉捩點。
一次大戰使美、蘇趨向孤立，是一個轉捩點。一次大戰前，作為歐洲國家的俄國與其他西方有著緊密的來往，例如俄國於1907年與英國締結《英俄協約》。至於美國方面，美國在戰前也活躍於國際舞台，例如美國總統羅斯福提議召開第二次海牙會議。然而，一次大戰造成了重大影響，俄國政府在戰時被共產主義革命所推翻，在1917年建立了首個共產主義政權，結果受到列強的孤立。至於美國則因為國民的反戰情緒而推行孤立政策，只是有限度參與歐洲事務。戰後，共產蘇聯外交孤立，例如蘇聯在1934年前未能成功加入國聯、1925年的羅加諾會議中也未有獲邀出席。至於美國儘管在特定情況下有參與歐洲事務，例如召開了華盛頓會議以試圖限制日本在太平洋勢力的增長，但美國的孤立政策也顯而易見，其中美國並沒有加入由美國總統羅斯福倡議成立的國聯，至1930年代德國侵略捷克、波蘭時也僅僅是隔岸觀火，不願介入歐洲事務。相比之下，美、俄在戰前與歐洲保持了密切的關係，但一次大戰卻使俄國(蘇聯)在戰後受到歐洲列強杯葛，同時美國也因反戰情況而拒絕介入歐洲事務，結果使美、蘇與歐洲的往來大減，往後更加未能同心合力阻止法西斯國家的擴張，可見是西方歷史的重要轉捩點
一次大戰促成國際維和機構的建立，為一轉捩點。一次大戰前，西方國家未有成立國際維和機構以維持和平，而且當時各國維持和平的方式主要是透過召開會議，例如召開了解決1905年摩洛哥危機的阿爾及西勒會議(1906年)、召開了1907年第二次海牙會議以商討裁軍事宜。然而，由於一次大戰是當時人類歷史上最嚴重傷亡的戰爭，造成了1600萬人死亡。戰後，西方國家為了避免再發生大規模戰爭，於是在巴黎和會的「和平十四點」中倡議成立一個國際維和機構以調停國際衝突，國際聯盟於1920年應運而生。往後，國際聯盟成為了西方國家解決衝突的平台，例如德國與波蘭就上西里西亞的領土糾紛在國際的斡旋下得到解決；國聯也於1923年阻止了意大利炮轟希臘科孚島。即使在二次大戰後成立的聯合國，其目標及功能也是繼承於國聯，只是在國聯的基礎上再作改良及強化。相比之下，一次大戰前未有建立國際維和機構，但一次大戰的慘痛教訓驅使西方國家希望透過成立國際維和機構以避免戰爭再起，結果使國聯於一次大戰後出現，甚至乎日後的聯合國也是繼承於此思想，可見是現代西方歷史的重要轉捩點。
雖然一次大戰在上述各方面帶來了巨變，但在極端民族主義方面卻只是一延續。
一次大戰並非是極端民族主義發展的轉捩點。一次大戰前，歐洲的極端民族主義情緒熾熱，例如德國的泛日耳曼主義、法國的復仇主義等。更甚，一次大戰的導火線塞拉耶佛危機(1914年)正正也是由於塞爾維亞的極端民族主義分子行刺奧匈皇儲而導致。儘管一次大戰的慘痛教訓令西方列強在巴黎和會中提出「民族自決」的原則，成立波蘭、捷克等民族國家，試圖解決民族衝突問題。但極端民族主義發展卻未有因民族自決的提出而式微。戰後，更由於民族自決原則的不公，例如將居住了300萬日耳曼人的蘇台德區交予捷克管治，結果導致德國民族的極度不滿，於1933年希特拉上台後，其銳意重建日耳曼人王國，例如於1938年合併有600萬日耳曼人的奧地利和取回蘇台德區，使民族問題再現。除德國外，由於意大利在巴黎和會中未能獲得英、法在戰時承諾給予的阜姆、達爾馬西亞，結果有助法西斯墨索里尼在1922年的上台，上台後更以恢復意大利在古羅馬時期的光輝為目標，積極對外擴張，例如1924年迫南斯拉夫交出阜姆，此等均反映極端民族主義情緒在戰後仍然熾熱。相比之下，一戰前後的極端民族主義情緒同樣熾烈。戰前的民族主義導致一次大戰的爆發，但戰後民族主義未能有效解決，德、意等民族主義變得更加尖銳和侵略性，更導致了二次大戰的爆發。可見，極端民族主義的發展只是延續而非轉捩點。
總括而言，儘管一次大戰在極端民族主義的發展一事上只是延續，但其作為人類歷史上第一次世界性的戰爭，影響重大深遠，尤其對主要的參戰國– 西方國家更加是帶來了翻天覆地的劇變，使歐洲在戰前和戰後判若兩地。因此，一次大戰在大程度上是現代西方歷史的轉捩點。
To what extent was the First World War a turning point of modern Western history? Limit your discussion up to the 1930s.
The First World War (1914-18) was the first-ever war that involved multinational participation in human history. Its massive scale could be said as unprecedented at that time. Being the major participating power, western countries received decisive impact from the war. Not only did the war decline the status of Europe, but it also brought about the rise of totalitarianism, the US and Russia’s inclination of isolationism, as well as the establishment of the first international peace-making organization. Therefore, to a large extent, the First World War was a turning point of modern Western history.
The First World War (WWI) declined the status of Europe, which was a turning point. Before the WWI, Europe was the most prosperous region in the world, where London in Britain was the international economic centre. European powers including Britain, Germany and France determined fate of the world, since they controlled tons of colonies. American and Asian powers such as the US and Japan were just regarded as second-class powers, reflecting the difference in their statuses. However, affected by the WWI, vitality of the European powers was greatly harmed. Even the victorious countries themselves such as Britain and France had much weaker national power comparing to the past. The four traditional empires who were defeated in the WWI (Germany德, Austria-Hungary奧匈, Russia俄 and Ottoman鄂圖曼) even dissolved one by one. The leading position of Europe over the world started to collapse. In the meantime, without directly affected by the war, countries like the US and Japan maintained their national power. The US even provided a large sum of loan to the European countries in wartime, made her become the new international economic centre. The US’s national power even overrode that of the European countries. After the WWI, the national power of the European countries greatly decreased. For instance, Germany got only 0.1 million army, while Austria-Hungary was divided into Austria and Hungary. At the same time, the US and Japan rose up. For example, in the Five-Power Treaty made in the Washington Conference華盛頓會議, the ratio of capital ships for Britain, the US, Japan, France and Italy was 5：5：3：1.75：1.75. It reflected that the US and Japan drew close with the leading position of the European countries, or even exceeding it. By comparison, Europe was the international political and economic centre before the WWI, enjoying a superior status. Yet the WWI caused tremendous destruction which brought about a decline in the European status. National power of the US and Japan already became equal to Europe, and economic power of the US even surpassed that of the European countries. Therefore, the WWI was an important turning point.
The WWI brought about the rise of totalitarianism, which was a turning point. Before the WWI, totalitarianism such as Fascism and Communism was not popular in Europe and America. For instance, Bolsheviks布爾什維克led by Lenin列寧 in Russia failed to overthrow the Russian Empire. Furthermore, many countries at that time went for capitalist system, such as Germany implementing constitution in 1871. Yet, before the WWI, the poor condition became a hotbed of totalitarianism. For instance, Russia retreated gradually in the war. Ultimately, revolutions sprung up in Russia. The October Revolution十月革命 in 1917 even successfully overthrew the capitalist government, meaning that the first-ever communist regime in the world was established. In the meantime, after WWI, Germany was forced to accept the humiliating ‘Treaty of Versailles’凡爾賽條約 while Italy failed to get territorial gains such as Fiume阜姆 in the Paris Peace Conference. This drove the development of Fascism in Germany and Italy. After the WWI, the tide of totalitarianism swept across Europe. Apart from Russia which actively spread communism through the Comintern 共產國際, Mussolini of the Fascist Italy and Hitler of the Nazi Germany gained political power in 1922 and 1933 respectively. Later Francisco Franco 佛朗哥將軍 of Spain was assisted to seize political power in the Spanish Civil War, which made Fascism proliferated rapidly in Europe. By comparison, communism failed to overthrow any political regimes before the WWI. Also, the Western countries were moving towards democratization, and development of Fascism was limited. Yet the poor condition caused by the WWI became a hotbed for the growth of totalitarianism. Communist and Fascist regimes were set up one by one, which marked an important turning point for the Western history.
The WWI brought about the US and the Russia’s inclination of isolationism, which was a turning point. Before the WWI, being a European country, Russia had close interaction with other Western countries. For instance, Russia and Britain signed the Anglo-Russian Entente 英俄協約 in 1907. The US was also active in the international arena before the war, exemplified by the US President Roosevelt who advocated the Second Hague Conference第二次海牙會議. Yet, the WWI caused significant impact. The Russian government was overthrown by the communist revolution in wartime. The first-ever communist regime in the world was established in 1917, which made Russia being isolated by the powers. As for the US, she adopted the isolationist policy孤立政策 due to the anti-war sentiment of her people, and only participated in the European affairs in a limited extent. After war, the communist Russia was isolated diplomatically. For instance, Russia failed to enter the League of Nations國聯 before 1934, and was not invited to join the Locarno Conference羅加諾會議 in 1925. Regarding the US, despite her participation in the European affairs in certain circumstances, such as calling the Washington Conference華盛頓會議 in an attempt to limit the growth of influence over the Pacific of Japan, the isolationist policy of the US was very obvious. For instance, the US did not join the League of Nations which was proposed by the US President Roosevelt. Moreover, when Germany invaded Czechoslovakia捷克 and Poland波蘭 in the 1930s, the US was just being a bystander without intervening in the European affairs. By comparison. The US and Russia kept close relationship with Europe before the war, but the WWI made Russia (the USSR) face boycott from the European powers, while the US refused to intervene in the European affairs due to anti-war sentiment. As a result, the contact between the US and Russia and Europe was much fewer, and they failed to prevent the Fascist countries from expending in joint effort later. Therefore, the WWI was a turning point of modern Western history.
The WWI facilitated the establishment of international peace-making organization, which was a turning point. Before the WWI, the western countries did not set up international peace-making organization to maintain peace. Plus the main way adopted by countries to maintain peace was to call meeting, such as the Algeciras Conference阿爾及西勒會議(1906) which solved the Moroccan Crisis摩洛哥危機(1905), and the Second Hague Conference第二次海牙會議(1907) which discussed disarmaments. Yet, the WWI caused the most serious casualties in human history at that time which involved 16 million deaths. Therefore, after war, the Western countries advocated to establish an international peace-making organization in the Fourteen Points和平十四點 in the Paris Peace Conference in order to prevent large-scale war from taking place again. The League of Nations國際聯盟 was therefore set up in 1920. Later, the League became the platform for the Western countries to solve disputes. For instance, the territorial dispute between Germany and Poland over Upper Silesia上西里西亞 was solved under international mediation. The League also stopped Italy from bombarding Corfu Island科孚島 in Greece successfully. Even the United Nations聯合國 which was set up after the Second World War, its aims and functions were inherited from the League, with adjustment and enhancement based on its foundation. By comparison, no international peace-making organization was set up before the WWI, yet the painful lesson learnt from the war drove the Western countries to establish one to prevent the start of war again. Therefore, the League appeared after the WWI, even the United Nations founded later was based on this idea. Therefore, the WWI was a turning point of modern Western history.
Although the WWI brought great changes in the aforementioned aspects, it only served as a continuation for the extreme nationalism.
The WWI was not a turning point for the development of the extreme nationalism. Before the WWI, extreme nationalism was already heated and popular in Europe, such as the Pan-Germanism泛日耳曼主義 in Germany and the Revanchism復仇主義 in France. Even worse, the Sarajevo Crisis塞拉耶佛危機(1914) which was a trigger for the WWI happened due to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand attempted by Serbian extremist. The painful lesson learnt from the WWI made the Western powers to propose ‘national self-determination民族自決’ principle in the Paris Peace Conference, which national states such as Poland波蘭 and Czechoslovakia捷克 were set up in an attempt to solve national conflicts. Yet development of extreme nationalism did not decline because of the proposal of national self-determination principle. After war, the unfairness of the national self-determination principle, such as the arrangement of giving right of governance over the Sudetenland蘇台德區where had 3 million Germanic population to Czechoslovakia, led to the discontent of the German. When Hitler rose to power in 1933, he was very determined in rebuilding the Germanic empire, exemplified by the Anschluss德奧合併 which Germany annexed Austria with 6 million Germanic population, as well as the retrieval of the Sudetenland in 1938, making national problem reappeared again. Apart from Germany, since Italy failed to get Fiume阜姆 and Dalmatia達爾馬西亞 which was promised by Britain and France in wartime, it paved the way for the rise of Fascist Mussolini in 1922. His aim was to resume the brilliance of Italy just like in the Ancient Roman period古羅馬時期, and he actively expanded territory. For instance, he forced Yugoslavia南斯拉夫 to give Fiume back yo Italy in 1924, showing that extreme nationalism was heated and popular after war. By comparison, extreme nationalism after the WWI was also heated. Pre-war nationalism triggered the outbreak of the WWI, yet post-war nationalism was not solved effectively. Nationalism of Germany and Italy even became more aggressive and invasive in nature, leading to the outbreak of the Second World War. Therefore, development of extreme nationalism was only a continuation but not a turning point.
To conclude, although WWI just served as a continuation for the development of the extreme nationalism, it had very significant impact to the world as it was the first-ever international war in human history. It brought about very decisive change to major participating countries – the Western countries. The pre-war and post-war difference of Europe was tremendous. Therefore, to a large extent, the WWI was a turning point of modern Western history.
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