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經濟大蕭條對於導致集體安全體系的失敗有多大重要性？
定義 經濟大蕭條指1929年由美國華爾街股票市場崩潰而引致全球性經濟衰退。 // 架構經濟大蕭條對於集體安全體系的失敗至關重要，因其削弱了國聯的維和能力、終結了和平條約營造的「蜜月期」，並限制了裁軍會議的成效。 // 立場相對於其他因素，經濟大蕭條對於集體安全體系的失敗重要性最大。
主旨句 其一，經濟大蕭條大大削弱了國聯的維和能力，使集體安全體系失敗。 // 主項重要性由於美國於一次大戰期間及戰後大量借貸予歐洲各國，如對德國的道茲計劃(1924年)等，結果當美國於經濟大蕭條時收回或中止對其他國家的貸款，造成嚴重的連鎖反應，使各國陷入嚴重的經濟困難。經濟大蕭條對各國經濟造成的災難性影響一方面令各國無力支援國聯的行動，如在1931年「九一八事件」中，國聯雖然證實日本的行動是侵略，但由於英、法等國受國內經濟問題困擾，未能支援國聯的軍事行動，以軍事方面阻止日本對中國的侵略，使國聯成效欠奉。另一方面，經濟大蕭條助長了極權主義國家的興起及侵略，如希特拉憑藉對外擴張及打擊共產主義等的主張獲得人民支持而上台，並於上台後逐步擴張，視國聯如無物，包括吞併奧地利及取回蘇台德區(1938年)，令國聯形同虛設。 // 小結 可見，經濟大蕭條的影響大大打擊了國聯的維和能力，導致集體安全體系失敗。
其二，經濟大蕭條終結和平條約營造出的「蜜月期」，促使集體安全失效。1920年代時，歐、美等國簽訂了和平條約以維持和平，包括1925年《羅加諾公約》及1928年《凱格—白里安公約》等，營造出和諧的國際氣氛。然而，1929年經濟大蕭條的出現終結了歐洲的「蜜月期」。於經濟大蕭條後，各國為求盡快恢復國內經濟而實施保護關稅政策，紛紛建立貿易壁壘，使各國的關係因經濟問題而疏離，同時也因專注解決國內經濟問題而減少參與國際事務，使1929年後列強放棄以締結和平協定的方式以維持和平。更甚，隨著納粹希特拉在經濟大蕭條後上台，其於1936年無視《羅加諾公約》的規定，公然將萊茵河區軍事化，使公約遭到撕毀。可見，經濟大蕭條終於和平氣氛，導致集體安全體系的失效。
其三，經濟大蕭條限制了裁軍會議的成效，使集體安全體系失敗。經濟大蕭條前，各國較熱衷參與國際的裁軍會議，以緩和軍備競賽，如在1921-22年華盛頓會議中有美、英、法、意、日等五國參加。然而，至1929年經濟大蕭條後，雖然各國有意透過裁軍以減低軍事開支，但由於部分國家恐懼侵略國會基於惡劣的經濟環境而進行擴張，因此使此等國家在裁軍議題上變得保守，如在1930年倫敦海軍會議中，意大利及法國因要保留自身軍力，而未有簽訂《限制和削減海軍軍備條約》，使條約局限於美﹑英﹑日三國。而且，至1932-34年的日內瓦裁軍會議，各國亦擔憂受他國侵略而拒絕作出裁軍，其中法國堅決認為沒有足夠的安全保障下絕不裁軍，最終使會議未能達成共識，失敗告終。可見，經濟大蕭條使各國在裁軍方面變得保守，限制了集體安全體系的成效。
雖然有其他導致集體安全體系失敗的原因，但重要性不及經濟大蕭條的影響。
主旨句 其一，英、法的綏靖政策雖然也導致集體安全體系失敗，但重要性不及經濟大蕭條的影響。 // 他項重要性英、法為國聯的核心會員國，支撐著國聯主要的運作，但兩國於1930年代採取綏靖政策就大大減低了國聯的效用，如在1935年意大利侵略阿比西尼亞一事上，英、法為避免嚴懲意大利而使德、意兩國靠攏，提出了犧牲2/3個阿比西尼亞予意大利以換取和平的建議，結果使意大利更趨跋扈，無視國聯的經濟制裁，使集體安全體系失敗。 // 駁論然而，就因果關係而言，英、法採取綏靖政策是基於經濟大蕭條帶來的嚴重經濟打擊。因經濟大蕭條打擊了英、法兩國的經濟，使兩國面對國內嚴峻的經濟問題，如兩國的工業產值於1929-32年間下跌超過20%。因此，兩國希望透過滿足侵略國的野心以避免戰爭的爆發，使兩國可以致力重整國內經濟以恢復國力。 // 小結可見，經濟大蕭條導致英、法採取綏靖政策，是集體安全體系失敗的根本因素。
其二，極權主義的擴張也導致集體安全失敗，但重要性不及經濟大蕭條的影響。德、意、日等極權國家的擴張直接破壞了集體安全體系，如日本於1931年發動「九一八事變」侵略中國，雖然國聯對之進行經濟制裁，但日本卻無視，更於1933年退出國聯，視國聯如無物；德國於1939年攻擊波蘭，違反《凱格—白里安公約》中以非戰爭方式作為外交方針的承諾，更導致了大戰的爆發，使兩次大戰期間的集體安全體系以失敗告終。然而，就因果關係而言，極權主義的興起及擴張也基於經濟大蕭條的影響。於經濟大蕭條前，極權主義的發展曾經一度放緩，如墨索里尼於1926年迫使阿爾巴尼亞成為其保護國後已沒有再進行侵略；希特拉也隨著國內經濟狀況有所改善而發展受阻。但是，由於1929年經濟大蕭條出現，惡劣的經濟環境助長了德、日兩國的極權主義崛起，同時導致意大利為解決國內經濟問題而進行擴張，終破壞了集體安全體系。可見，極權主義對集體安全體系失敗雖有重要性，但重要性不及經濟大蕭條的影響。
其三，集體安全體系自身的不足也使其失敗，但重要性不及經濟大蕭條的影響。兩次大戰期間的集體安全體系缺乏有效的懲罰方法應對違規的國家，如國聯沒有獨立軍隊以阻止侵略，使國聯不能發揮強而有力的制裁角色。此外，兩次大戰的裁軍會議及和平條約也沒有罰則，如《羅加諾公約》(1925年)沒有指明德國違反公約的懲罰，令往後德國公然撕毀《羅加諾公約》，重新將萊茵河區軍事化，使公約徹底失效。然而，集體安全體系自身的不足並不及經濟大蕭條的影響重要。就因果關係而言，因國聯原本可以依靠英﹑法等強國的軍力，但經濟大蕭條約使英﹑法衰弱，變相使國聯變得軟弱無力。更甚，經濟大蕭條使集體安全體系的弱點表露無遺，因經濟大蕭條促使極權國家進行擴張，如日本的「九一八事變」(1931年)及「一二八事變」(1932年)，無視國聯的制裁，結果暴露了國聯無力制裁的弱點。可見，集體安全體系自身的不足並不及經濟大蕭條的影響重要。
總括而言，經濟大蕭條大大破壞了集體安全體系的效用，使之失敗。雖然英法的綏靖政策、極權主義的擴張及集體安全體系自身的弱點也是集體安全體系失敗的其中原因，但重要性並不及經濟大蕭條的影響。
How important was the Great Depression in causing the failure of the collective security system?
The Great Depression in 1929 was a global economic recession as a result of the collapsed of stock market at Wall Street華爾街股票市場. The Great Depression contributed a lot in causing the failure of the collective security system, as it reduced the peace-keeping forces of the League of Nations, ended the ‘Honeymoon Period’ created by numerous peace treaties, as well as limited the effectiveness of disarmament conferences. Compared with other factors, the Great Depression was the most important one in causing the failure of the collective security system.
Firstly, the Great Depression greatly reduced the peace-keeping forces of the League of Nations, leading to the failure of the collective security system. The US granted huge loans to European countries during and after the WW1, such as the Dawes Plan道茲計劃(1924) assisting Germany. As a result, chain effect occurred when the US had to call back loans at the time of the Great Depression. Countries were thus facing serious economic difficulties. The Great Depression caused catastrophic destruction on the economies of countries, and this led to their inability in supporting the operations of the League of Nations. For instance, the League of Nations confirmed that the September 18th Incident「九一八事件」 initiated by Japan in 1931 was an invasion. But as countries like Britain and France were facing serious economic problems, they did not support the League in using military force to deter invasion. The effectiveness of the League of Nations was greatly hindered. Also, the Great Depression prompted the rose of totalitarianism and invasions of totalitarian states. For instance, Hitler gained popularity by foreign expansion and in combat of communism. He rose to power and started to expand to other countries, neglecting the resistance of the League of Nations, such as the annexation of Austria奧地利 and seizure of Sudetenland蘇台德區. The League thus became totally useless. This showed that the Great Depression greatly hindered the peace-keeping forces of the League of Nations, resulting the failure of the collective security system.
Secondly, the Great Depression ended the ‘Honeymoon Period’ created by peace treaties, leading to the failure of the collective security system. In the 1920s, countries in Europe and the US had signed numerous peace treaties to preserve peace. It included the Locarno Treaties《羅加諾公約》 in 1925 and the Kellogg-Briand Pact《凱格—白里安公約》 in 1928. Peaceful atmosphere surrounded the international community. However, the occurrence of the Great Depression in 1929 ended the ‘Honeymoon Period’ in Europe. After the Great Depression, countries set up trade barriers貿易壁壘 in order to revive the internal economy. The relationships among countries became more distant after the occurrence of economic problems. Also, the countries’ engagement on international affairs reduced with their shifting focus on solving economic problems. So, the powers stopped using peace treaties as a way to preserve peace. Worse still, Hitler rose to power after the Great Depression. He ignored those clauses stated in Locarno Treaties《羅加諾公約》 and remilitarized Rhineland萊茵河區(1936). The treaty was totally shattered. This showed that the Great Depression destroyed the peaceful atmosphere and leading to the failure of the collective security system.
Thirdly, the Great Depression limited the effectiveness of disarmament conferences, and led to the failure of collective security system. Before the Great Depression, countries actively participated in disarmament conferences so as to slow down the armament race. For instance, the US, Britain, France, Italy and Japan joined the Washington Conference華盛頓會議 in 1921-22. However, although countries were willing to reduce military expenditure by disarming after the Great Depression in 1929, they held a rather conservative attitude towards issues on disarmament. This was due to their fear on the expansion of invaders under the poor economy. For instance, in the London Naval Conference倫敦海軍會議 in 1930, Italy and France rejected the signing of ‘Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament’ 《限制和削減海軍軍備條約》 due to their desire to preserve their military strength. As a result, the treaty only limited the armament development of the US, Britain and Japan. Also, in the Geneva Conference日內瓦裁軍會議 in 1932-34, countries refused to disarm because of their fear of being invaded by aggressors. France refused to disarm when there was insufficient protection from being invaded. So, no consensus was reached in the conferences. This showed that countries held a rather conservative attitude in the disarmament issues due to the Great Depression, in which it limited the effectiveness of the collective security system.
There were other factors contributing to the failure of collective security system, however, their importance were less than the effects of the Great Depression.
Firstly, the appeasement policy adopted by Britain and France contributed to the failure of the collective security system, but it was less important than the effects of the Great Depression. Britain and France, as the core member states of the League of Nations, supported the major operations of the League. However, the adoption of appeasement policy in the 1930s greatly reduced the effectiveness of the League. For instance, Italy invaded Abyssinia阿比西尼亞 in 1935. In order to prevent Italy from uniting with Germany as a result of the severe punishment imposed, Britain and France suggested forgoing 2/3 of Abyssinia to Italy in exchange for peace. As a result, Italy became more unscrupulous and neglected the economic sanctions imposed by the League of Nations afterwards. This contributed to the failure of the collective security system. However, in terms of causality, to trace back to the root of problem, the adoption of appeasement policy was primarily due to the poor economy brought by the Great Depression. As the Great Depression greatly damaged the economies of Britain and France, they were forced to deal with their economic difficulties. For instance, the industrial output of the two countries fell for more than 20% in 1929-32. Thus, they would like to prevent the outbreak of war by satisfying the ambition of invaders. They could then reconstruct their economy and increased their national strength. This showed that the Great Depression prompted the adoption of appeasement policy by Britain and France, and was the most important factor leading to the failure of the collective security system.
Secondly, the expansion of totalitarianism led to the failure of collective security system, but it was less significant than the effects brought by the Great Depression. Totalitarian states like Germany, Italy and Japan adopted expansionist policies which directly destroyed the collective security system. For instance, in 1931, Japan invaded China in the September 18th Incident九一八事變. Although the League of Nations imposed economic sanction to Japan, she ignored the sanction and quitted the League in 1933; Germany assaulted Poland波蘭 in 1939, which violated the renouncement of war as a means of settling international disputes stated in the Kellogg-Briand Pact《凱格—白里安公約》. The WW2 was eventually sparked off, proving the failure of the collective security system established in the inter-war period. However, in terms of causality, the rose and expansion of totalitarianism was a result of the effects brought by the Great Depression. Before the Great Depression, totalitarianism once slowed down. For instance, Mussolini stopped the aggression after turning Albania阿爾巴尼亞 into his protectorate in 1926; Hitler seizure of power was hindered as the economy of Germany started to improve. However, due to the occurrence of the Great Depression, the poor economy prompted the rise of totalitarianism in Germany and Japan. At the same time, Italy used expansion as a way to solve the internal economic problem. These eventually severely destroyed the collective security system. This showed that although the rise of totalitarianism contributed to the failure of collective security system, it was less important than the effects brought by the Great Depression.
Thirdly, the weaknesses of collective security system led to its failure, but were less important than the effects brought by the Great Depression. The collective security system established in the inter-war period lacked an effective way to punish invaders. For instance, the League of Nations had no military force of its own. It made the League failed to perform the duty of imposing punishment to aggressors. Also, there was no ways to enforce the peace treaties and disarmament conferences. For instance, the Locarno Treaties《羅加諾公約》 in 1925 did not indicate the punishment of German’s violation of treaties. Later, Germany openly violated the Locarno Treaties by remilitarizing Rhineland, proving the failure of the treaties in preserving peace. However, in terms of causality, the weaknesses of collective security system were less important than the effects brought by the Great Depression. Originally, the League of Nations could rely on the strong military power of countries like Britain and France. But as the national strength of Britain and France was hindered by the Great Depression, the League of Nations became powerless. Worse still, the Great Depression revealed the weaknesses of the collective security system. The Great Depression prompted the expansion of totalitarian states, such as the September 18th Incident九一八事變(1931) and the January 28th Incident一二八事變(1932). The aggressors neglected the sanctions of the League of Nations, resulting to the exposure of weaknesses of the League. This showed that the weaknesses of the collective security system were less important than the effects brought by the Great Depression.
To sum up, the Great Depression reduced the effectiveness of the collective security system and led to its failure. Although the adoption of appeasement policy, the expansion of totalitarianism and its own weaknesses also contributed to the failure of the collective security system, they were less significant than the effects brought by the Great Depression.
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