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原題目題號：DSE-2017-Essay-05
蘇聯在哪些方面影響了冷戰的發展？參考1946-91年間的歷史，解釋你的答案。
蘇聯於二次大戰期間崛起成為超級強國，與美國一爭長短，對於影響冷戰的發展有著舉足輕重的影響力。儘管蘇聯在政治、經濟、社會及軍事方面對冷戰的發展帶來了負面影響，但同時，其在軍事、外交方面也有不能忽視的正面影響。
政治方面，蘇聯導致衝突及地區性戰爭出現，惡化了冷戰的發展。衝突方面，蘇聯銳意擴張及鞏固共產主義陣營的勢力，結果導致了多次衝突的出現。例如蘇聯在1948年不滿英、美、法合併三國在西德的佔領區，封鎖了柏林，結果導致了柏林危機出現，使歐洲迎來了二次大戰後列強間的首次正面衝突，使冷戰的惡劣氣氛加劇。及後，蘇聯於1962年在古巴建立導彈基地，就引起了美國極度不滿，挑起了古巴導彈危機，大戰幾乎一觸即發，冷戰的交惡關係也發展至高潮。地區性戰爭方面，蘇聯積極支援世界各地的共產主義派系，例如將繳獲的日軍武器交予中國共產黨、留下軍事專家協助北韓及提供軍需品予北越，此等行動均大大有助世界各地的共產派系發起內戰，結果導致地區性戰爭此起彼落，例如國共內戰(1946-49年)、韓戰(1950-53年)及越戰(1961-75年)等，使資本主義陣營與共產主義陣營關係持續緊張。可見，蘇聯促使衝突及地區性戰爭出現，惡化了冷戰的發展。
經濟方面，蘇聯導致歐洲經濟分裂，同樣惡化了冷戰的發展。為了避免自由、民主思想隨著貿易而傳入東歐，蘇聯早於二次大戰後已經中斷了東、西歐間的經濟往來，令東、西歐的經濟分道揚鑣。更甚，隨著1947年美國就馬歇爾計劃進行討論，蘇聯深恐馬歇爾計劃會令東歐國家對其產生離心力，結果不單禁止東歐國家參與馬歇爾計劃，更加馬歇爾計劃的討論階段就提出了莫洛托夫計劃(1947年)，透過加強與東歐國家的經濟往來，從而減低東歐國家對西歐經濟的依賴。及後，更於1949年成立經濟互助委員會以承接莫洛托夫計劃，進一步加強對東歐國家的經濟控制，例如經濟以「協調國民經濟計劃」的旗號指導及干預成員國的經濟。結果，東歐國家的經濟政策牢牢掌控在蘇聯手中，而東、西歐的長期經濟分裂狀況也無可避免地出現，惡化了冷戰期間兩大陣營的關係。可見，蘇聯在經濟方面令歐洲經濟分裂，對冷戰發展帶來負面影響。
社會方面，蘇聯阻礙兩大陣營的文化接觸，惡化了冷戰的發展。自二次大戰後，蘇聯已經封鎖東歐與西歐之間的所有交通、通訊和貿易，並沿著衛星國邊界裝上一道有刺的鐵絲網，結果中斷了東、西歐的文化往來，此舉更被英國首相邱吉爾發表「鐵幕演說」批評。此外，在德國方面，蘇聯嚴厲限制東德與西德間的往來，更於1961年興建柏林圍牆，以阻止東、西德的人民接觸，結果令冷戰關係更加冷淡。至冷戰後期，蘇聯於1979年入侵阿富汗後，美國為了抗議蘇聯的侵略舉動，於1980年聯同西歐國家集體杯葛蘇聯舉行的莫斯科奧運會，至後來，蘇聯為表不滿，同樣於1984年聯同東歐國家杯葛美國舉行的洛杉磯奧運會。結果，蘇聯的侵略引致文化體育交流也受到嚴重干預，使資本主義和共產主義陣營間的社會接觸受到中斷。可見，蘇聯令冷戰的社會發展帶來了負面影響。
軍事方面，蘇聯導致軍備競賽及軍事陣營的對立，大大惡化了冷戰的發展。軍備競賽方面，雖然美國是首個研製出原子彈的國家，但隨著蘇聯於1949年試爆原子彈後，令到西方資本主義國家更加恐懼，故積極研發，例如美國於1952年亦研發出氫氣彈。及後，當1970年代蘇聯核武數量超越美國時，更引起西方國家的恐懼，美國與英、法等歐洲國家在1983年提出了「星戰計劃」，進一步將核武競賽擴展至太空科技的競賽，令兩大陣營關係更趨惡化。此外，在軍事陣營方面，由於蘇聯在1948封鎮柏林，結果導致西方國家害怕危機的持續發展會導致與蘇聯的戰爭爆發。在此情況下，西方國家成立了北約(1949年)以對抗蘇聯，結果令到兩大陣營的對立關係更加明顯。及後，蘇聯為了團結東歐共產主義陣營，更於1955年成立了華沙公約組織。至此，兩大軍事陣營對立的局面已經形成，此惡劣的關係更持續了近半個世紀。可見，蘇聯在軍事方面惡化了冷戰的發展。
雖然蘇聯在政治、經濟、社會及軍事方面帶來了頗多的負面影響，但也不能忽視其對冷戰的正面影響。
軍事方面，蘇聯有助推動裁軍條約的簽訂，有助緩和冷戰的局面。為了緩和冷戰的緊張局面及減低軍費開支，蘇聯早於1962年古巴導彈危機後已經與美國就核問題展開裁軍談判，至1963年就簽訂了《禁止核試條約》，限制美、蘇兩國的核試，使核武競賽稍有緩和。至1968年，在蘇聯與美國的呼籲下，多達59個國家簽訂了《不擴散核武器條約》，承諾防止核武擴張，及後至1970年代更與美國開展了限制戰略武器談判，使冷戰進入了「低盪時期」，冷戰有所緩和。儘管裁軍進程在1979年蘇聯入侵阿富汗後有所中斷，但隨著1985年戈巴卓夫的上台，其致力推動裁軍事項，不但於1987年美國就導彈問題而達成了《中程導彈裁撤條約》，更於1990年實現了北約與華沙公約的裁軍，簽訂了《歐洲常規裁軍條約》，使軍備競賽的局面大大得到緩和，有助改善冷戰的對立形勢。可見，蘇聯也有助推動裁軍，對緩和冷戰也有貢獻。
外交方面，蘇聯促使和平會議及互訪的出現，對冷戰發展也有正面影響。蘇聯對於推動多次冷戰的關係緩和也具重要性，例如於1950年代，赫魯曉夫放棄了走史太林與西方對著幹的路線，轉而提倡與西方「和平共存」，有助促使1955年日內瓦首腦會議的出現，使冷戰的緊張關係於1950年代稍有緩和。及後，至1970年代，蘇聯也願意與西方國家進行談判，達成了《赫爾辛基協定》，承諾與資本主義國家之間互相尊重，對於促成1970年代的「低盪時期」也具重要性。更甚，至1980年代，蘇聯對於冷戰結束更加是至關重要，因戈巴卓夫積極改善與西方國家間的關係，一上台便與英國首相戴卓爾夫人及美國總統列根會面，及後又不斷就緩和冷戰關係作出貢獻，例如於1989年與美國總統布殊在馬會他會議宣佈「將冷戰掉入地中海」，結果有助象徵了冷戰的結束，使雙方關係大大得到改善。可見，蘇聯對冷戰發展也具正面影響，更有助冷戰的結束。
總括而言，雖然蘇聯對於惡化冷戰期間兩大陣營的關係有著責無旁貸的重要性，但也不能忽視其對於緩和及結束冷戰的貢獻。
In what ways did the USSR affect the development of the Cold War? Explain your answer with reference to the period 1946-91.
The USSR emerged as a superpower on a par with the US during the Second World War, and it had significant influence on the development of the Cold War. Although it brought about negative impact in political, economic, social and military aspects, it also had positive impact in military and diplomatic aspects that should not be ignored.
Politically speaking, the USSR caused conflicts and regional warfare that aggravated the Cold War. In terms of conflicts衝突, the USSR, eager to extend and secure communist influence, caused several conflicts such as the Berlin Crisis柏林危機. In 1948, the USSR blocked access to Berlin in protest at the combination of the British, American and French occupation zones in West Germany. It gave rise to the first direct conflict between the powers in Europe after WW2, generating Cold War tensions. Afterwards, the USSR upset the US and sparked off the Cuban Missile Crisis古巴導彈危機 in 1962 by constructing a missile base in Cuba. Cold War tensions reached its peak and a world war was possible anytime. In terms of regional warfare地區性戰爭, the USSR actively supported communist forces around the world. For example, it gave the confiscated Japanese weapons to the Chinese communists, sent military experts to North Korea and provided military supplies for North Vietnam. These helped communists around the world start civil wars and led to a series of regional wars, including the Chinese Civil War國共內戰(1946-49), Korean War韓戰 (1950-53) and Vietnam War越戰(1961-75), fuelling tension between the capitalist and communist blocs. Therefore, the USSR caused conflicts and regional warfare that aggravated the Cold War.
Economically speaking, the USSR made the European economy divided and aggravated the Cold War. To avoid an inflow of liberal and democratic ideas through trading, the USSR cut all economic connections between Eastern and Western Europe after WW2 and their economies became independent of each other. Worse still, following the discussions on the Marshall Plan馬歇爾計劃 in America in 1947, the USSR, threatened by the possible detachment of Eastern European states induced by the plan, banned them from joining it and introduced the Molotov Plan莫洛托夫計劃 (1947) during the Marshall Plan’s discussion stage, with a view to reducing their economic dependence on Western Europe by strengthening Soviet economic ties with them. After that, it established the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance經濟互助委員會 in 1949 succeeding the Molotov Plan to tighten its grip on Eastern Europe’s economies. For example, it influenced and intervened in their economic decisions in the name of ‘coordination of national economic plans協調國民經濟計劃’. Consequently, their economy policies were manipulated by the Soviet Union, Eastern and Western Europe became inevitably divided for a long time, and the relationship between the two blocs deteriorated. Therefore, by keeping Europe economically divided, the USSR caused negative impact on the development of the Cold War.
Socially speaking, the USSR obstructed cultural interactions between the two blocs and aggravated the Cold War. Since WW2, the Soviet Union had blocked all means of transport, communication and trade between Eastern and Western Europe, and it erected a barrier of barbed wire along the borders of its satellite states that blocked cultural exchange between the two parts of Europe. Such deeds were even criticized in the ‘Iron Curtain鐵幕演說’ speech by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill邱吉爾. As for Germany, the Soviet Union strictly forbid interactions between East and West Germany and even constructed the Berlin Wall柏林圍牆 in 1961 to prevent them, making their relationship more strained during the Cold War. The result was that at the late stage of the Cold War after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan阿富汗 of 1979, America and Western European countries boycotted the Moscow Olympic Games莫斯科奧運會 in 1980 to protest against the invasion. To display its disaffection, the Soviet Union, together with Eastern European countries, also boycotted the Los Angeles Olympic Games洛杉磯奧運會 in 1984. Its invasion had caused major interruption to social contacts as well as cultural and sports interactions between the capital and communist blocs. Therefore, the USSR caused negative impact on social development during the Cold War.
In military aspect, the USSR led to an arms race and opposing military organizations that greatly fuelled the Cold War. In terms of arms race, America was the first country to manufacture atomic bombs原子彈, but the Soviet successful test of atomic bomb in 1949 induced fear among Western capitalist countries, which thus accelerated their research and development. For example, America invented hydrogen bomb氫氣彈 in 1952. When the number of nuclear weapons possessed by the Soviet Union surpassed that of the US in the 1970s, Western countries were in panic and European countries such as Britain and France joined hands with America to launch the Strategic Defense Initiative星戰計劃 in 1983 to progress further from nuclear arms race to space race, making the relationship between the two blocs even worse. In terms of military organizations, Western countries were worried by the Berlin Blockade of 1948 by the Soviet Union that they would eventually had a war with the Soviet Union as the crisis unfolded. Under these circumstances, they set up the North Atlantic Treaty Organization北約(1949) in resistance to the Soviet Union, highlighting the hostile relationship between the two blocs. To pull Eastern European communist members together, the USSR also established the Warsaw Pact華沙公約 in 1955. At this point, the confrontation between the two military organizations had come into shape and lasted for almost half a century. Therefore, the Soviet Union aggravated the Cold War in military aspect as well.
Despite its negative impact in the above aspects, one should not ignore its positive impact on the Cold War.
In military aspect, the USSR facilitated the signing of disarmament treaties that alleviated the situation. To ease Cold War tensions and lower military expenses, the USSR started nuclear disarmament talks with America as early as 1962 after the Cuban Missile Crisis. They signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty禁止核試條約 in 1963 to set limits to their nuclear tests, slightly cooling down the nuclear arms race. In 1968, under the call of the US and the USSR, as many as 59 countries signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty不擴散核武器條約 to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. In the 1970s, it even started the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks限制戰略武器談判 with America that brought the Cold War to the détente period低盪時期 of relaxation. Although the disarmament process was interrupted by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, Gorbachev proactively promoted it after his accession to power in 1985. The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty中程導彈裁撤條約 was signed in 1987 on missiles, and the Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty歐洲常規裁軍條約 concluded in 1990 to realize the mutual disarmament between NATO and the Warsaw Pact. This greatly cooled down the arms race and alleviated the confrontation. Therefore, the Soviet Union has also contributed to the relaxation of the Cold War by promoting disarmament.
In diplomatic aspect, the USSR helped bring about peace conferences and mutual visits that had positive impact on the development of the Cold War. The Soviet Union was important in alleviating tensions during the Cold War. For example, in the 1950s, Khrushchev abandoned Stalin’s approach of standing at odds with the West and proposed ‘peaceful co-existence和平共存’. This idea led to the Geneva Summit日內瓦首腦會議 of 1955 and slightly relieved the tensions during the Cold War in the 1950s. As for the 1970s, the Soviet Union was still willing to have negotiations with Western countries and reached the Helsinki Accords赫爾辛基協定 that guaranteed mutual respect between capitalist and communist countries. This was of considerable importance in fostering the détente period in the 1970s. In the 1980s, the Soviet Union even played a critical role in ending the Cold War. Gorbachev was eager to improve the relationship with the West and met British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and US President Ronald Reagan right upon accession. He then continued his effort to alleviate tension, such as declaring that ‘the Cold War will be dumped down to the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea’ at the Malta Summit馬會他會議 of 1989 with US President George Bush. This symbolized the end of the Cold War and great improvement of relationship between the two sides. Therefore, the Soviet Union also had positive impact on the Cold War and it was even the one that ended it.
In conclusion, although the Soviet Union had unshirkable responsibility for the aggravating relationship between the two blocs during the Cold War, its contributions to the relaxation and end of the Cold War should not be ignored.
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