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評估中華人民共和國於1949-65年間為達致經濟現代化所作出的努力的成效。
定義 經濟現代化指工、農業得到均衡及蓬勃的發展，人民生活溫飽。 // 架構 在1949年中共建國後，中共隨即作出各項嘗試以達致經濟現代化，包括土地改革、一五計劃、大躍進及調整政策。 // 立場 其中，土地改革、一五計劃及調整政策均取得了令人滿意的成效，但大躍進卻帶來災難性的影響，成效乏善可陳。
主旨句 首先，中共實行土地改革以促進經濟現代化的努力取得了一定的成效。 // 標準 為達致人民生活溫飽、農業生產力提高的經濟現代化目標。 // 方法 中共在1949年建國後不久就推行土地改革(1950-52年)，透過沒收地主、富農的土地，從而分配予佃農、貧農，實行農民的土地所有制，藉此提高農民的生產力，改善農業方面的產量。 // 成效 中共實施的土地改革取得了明顯的效果，土地改革使全國3億多佃農、貧農獲得了7億畝的土地，免除了過去每年向地主繳交的700億斤糧食的沉重地租，並且分得了耕畜、房屋、耕具等資源。結果，農民在獲得農地後，生產力大大得到提昇，中國糧食總產量在1952年較1949年增長達44.8%，棉花產量增長更高達193.4%，大大確保了人民的基本糧食需求，令中國經濟大大得到發展。 // 小結 可見，中共實行土地改革成功解放土地，提高了生產力，對於實現經濟現代化取得了一定的成效。
其次，中共實行一五計劃以促進經濟現代化的努力也成效顯著。為實現工業現代化，刺激中國的工業產量，並且提高農業、手工業等方面的生產力，以及控制物價，避免物價過高影響民生情況。中共於1953年起實行第一個五年計劃，提出「一化三改造」的目標，希望實現工業化，以及農業、手工業及私營工商業方面的社會主義改造。其中，工業方面，中共開展多達694個建設項目，將國家58%的開支投放於工業，包括鋼鐵、機械等範圍。同時，也分別成立農業及手工業的生產合作社，提高集體化生產的程度，以建立合作的方式推高產量。並且，又於1953年起實行「統購統銷制度」，控制糧食來源及供應，避免商人囤積居奇，影響民生。中共推行的一五計劃取得了顯著的成效，由於中共投入大量資源於工業範疇，因此大大推動了中國的工業化進程，1957年的工業總產值較1952年增長了128.6%，其中重工業增長了210.7%，而輕工業則增長了83.3%，工業生產的增長迅速。同時，農業、手工業方面的生產力也有所提升，國民收入於一五計劃時期的年均增長率高達8.9%，加上在統購統銷制度下，物價受到控制，中國經濟現代化的程度得到提高，民生情況有所改善。可見，中共為實現經濟現代化而推行一五計劃，取得了一定的成效。
另外，中共開展了大躍進以達致經濟現代化，但卻導致經濟倒退，有礙經濟現代化。為進一步提高工業、農業方面的產量，以及減低貧富懸殊的差距，締造豐衣足食的現代化經濟狀況。中共於1958年開展了大躍進運動，推行全民大煉鋼，號召群眾參與土法煉鋼，並且在農業上號召全國農民深耕密植，透過集體化的合作，並引入新的耕作法和飼養法，希望大幅提高農業生產量。此外，又在全國各地成立人民公社，由公社規劃生產及包辦基本生活需求，例如膳食和醫療等，以改善民生。然而，中共推行的大躍進不但未能刺激經濟發展，更導致經濟倒退。例如工業大躍進動員多達9000萬人煉鋼，但煉出來的鋼鐵卻有一半不達標，費時失事，浪漫人力物力；農業大躍進方面，在人民公社「平均主義」的情況下，積極性倒退，加上地方政府及農民為滿足中央的高指標，虛報產量，結果導致地方在上繳公糧後糧食嚴重不足，使中國於1960年代初出現飢荒，非正常死亡人數高達3000萬人，經濟陷入困難時期，國民收入的年均增長率竟錄得3.1%的負增長，民生困苦。可見，中共推行大躍進以實現經濟現代化，但經濟卻不升反跌，帶來了反效果。
最後，中共透過調整政策以實現經濟現代化的努力取得了理想的成果。大躍進後，中國經濟陷入困難時期。為了扭轉經濟困局，重新推動工、農業的增長，並且改善民生，解決飢荒的問題。以劉少奇為首的中共領導習於1963年提出了調整政策，在農業方面實行「三自一包」(即「自留地、自由市場、自負盈虧、及包產到戶」)的政策，使農民能夠擁有自己的土地，並且在政府徵購農作物收成後，可以保留剩餘的收成在市場售賣。並且在工業方面一改過往重量不重質的特徵，規管產品質量，同時又關閉大量虧損的工廠企業，如於1961-62年合共關閉約4.3萬間工廠企業，提高企業及產品的質量，希望藉此達致經濟現代化。事實上，中共推行的調整政策取得了令人滿意的成果。調整政策不但糾正了大躍進時期盲目冒進的陋弊，更逐步推動了國家的經濟的復甦與發展。例如工、農業方面，調整政策後工業年均增長率為18%，農業則為12%，工、農業重新得到發展。更甚，調整政策時期的國民收入平均增長率高達14.7%，民生情況得到大大改善，飢荒的威脅也大致得到消除。可見，中共實行的調整政策有助推動中國經濟現代化的進程，取得了顯著的效用。
總括而言，雖然中共於1949年起隨即作出多項努力以實現中國經濟現代化，其中土地改革、一五計劃和調整政策等均取得了如意的成績，但始終中國的經濟基礎落後，再加上大躍進帶來的災難性打擊，結果中國在1960年代末經濟仍然未能達致現代化。
Assess the effectiveness of the efforts made by the People’s Republic of China to achieve economic modernization in the period 1949-1965.
Economic modernization means industries and agriculture are developed in a balanced and vigorous way, and people live at a subsistence level. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) started different attempts to attain economic modernization after it established the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, which included the Land Reforms, the First Five Year Plan, the Great Leap Forward and the Readjustment. Among them, the Land Reform, the First Five Year Plan and the Readjustment achieved satisfying effectiveness, yet the Great Leap Forward brought disastrous effect, which had poor effectiveness.
First, the Land Reforms carried out by the CCP to facilitate economic modernization had significant effectiveness. In order to achieve targets aiming at economic modernization like people living at subsistence level and raising agricultural productivity, the CCP launched the Land Reforms推行土地改革(1950-52) after it established the PRC in 1949. Land was confiscated from landlords and kulaks and then distributed to tenant farmers佃農 and peasants. Land ownership was implemented in order to raise peasants’ productivity and improve agricultural production. The Land Reforms got significant effectiveness. Almost 0.3 billion tenant farmers and peasants benefited from it and were distributed 0.7 billion acres of land. 70 billion jin of grains which were handed in to landlords annually in the past were omitted since then. Resources like farm animals, houses and farming tools were shared among peasants. As a result, productivity increased rapidly after peasants got the land. Total grain production of China increased by 44.8% in 1952 comparing with 1949. The production growth of cotton even reached 193.4%, greatly ensuring people’s basic needs for food. Economy was greatly developed. Therefore, the CCP successfully liberated the land by launching the Land Reforms. Productivity was raised. The Land Reform was effective in achieving economic modernization.
Second, the First Five Year Plan carried out by the CCP to facilitate economic modernization had significant effectiveness. To realize industrial modernization, stimulate industrial production of China, raise productivity in agriculture and handicraft industries, and control prices so as to avoid people’s livelihood being affected by high prices, the CCP launched the First Five Year Plan in 1953. It set “one transformation and three changes一化三改造” as the target, hoping to actualize industrialization, as well as the socialist transformation in agriculture, handicraft industries and private industries and business. For industry, the CCP carried out more than 694 construction projects and invested 58% of the national expenses in industries, including iron and steel as well as machinery. At the same time, the CCP also set up Agricultural Producers’ Cooperatives生產合作社 and Handicraft Producers’ Cooperatives to raise level of collectivization集體化程度. It was hoped that production could be raised by cooperation. Moreover, the unified purchase and marketing system統購統銷制度 was implemented since 1953 so as to control the source and supply of food and prevent merchants from hoarding the food for speculation which could affect people’s livelihood. The First Five Year Plan achieved great effectiveness. The pace of industrialization was greatly pushed forward as the CCP put in abundant resources in industrial aspect. In 1957, the gross value of industrial output increased by 128.6% compared with that of 1952. The total output of heavy industries and that of light industries grew by 210.7% and 83.3% respectively. The figures reflected the explosive growth in industrial production. At the same time, productivity of agriculture and handicraft industry increased as well. The annual growth rate of gross national income during the First Five Year Plan reached 8.9%. Also, under the unified purchase and marketing system, prices were manipulated. The level of economic modernization was raised, and people’s livelihood was improved. Therefore, the implementation of the First Five Year Plan by the CCP to achieve economic modernization had certain effectiveness.
Besides, the CCP carried out the Great Leap Forward as a way to achieve economic modernization, yet it actually caused the economy to retrogress and impeded the economic modernization. In order to further raise production of industry and agriculture, narrow the gap between the rich and poor and create an economic status which was modernized and subsistent, the CCP launched the Great Leap Forward in 1958. The nationwide iron and steel production campaign全民大煉鋼 was carried out. Masses were called to join the steel production campaign while peasants were called to concentrate in agricultural production. Through collectivized cooperation as well as the introduction of new ways to farm and rear, it was hoped that agricultural production could be raised drastically. Furthermore, the People’s Communes人民公社 were set up to plan production and take care of people’s basic needs, such as food and medical treatment, etc. People’s livelihood was hoped to improve. However, the Great Leap Forward could not stimulate economic development, it even caused the economy to regress. For instance, for Great Leap Forward in industry, nearly 90 million people were mobilized to refine steel, but half of the steel production was not up to standard. Time was wasted and thing could not reach its goal. Manpower and resources were misused. For Great Leap Forward in agriculture, under the “equalitarianism平均主義” of the People’s Communes, working incentive was much lower. Plus, local government and peasants falsely reported the agricultural production in order to satisfy the unreachably high standard set by the government. As a result, localities did not have sufficient food supply after handing over the amount of food required by the state. Famine occurred in the early 1960s. The number of unnatural death reached 30 million people. Economy turned bad and fell into difficult situation, and negative growth (3.1%) was even recorded in the annual growth rate of gross national income. People’s lives were poor. Therefore, the CCP carried out the Great Leap Forward to achieve economic modernization, but the economy was even worse after its implementation. The Great Leap Forward backfired.
Lastly, the Readjustment carried out by the CCP to achieve economic modernization had significant effectiveness. After the Great Leap Forward, the economy of China fell into a difficult period. In order to turn over the economic doldrums, bring growths in industry and agriculture again, improve people’s livelihood and solve famine, the CCP leaders, headed by Liu Shaoqi, proposed the Readjustment in 1963. In agriculture, the party adopted the policy of ‘three freedoms and one fixed quota三自一包’ (i.e. plot free for private use, free markets, enterprises free to take responsibility for their own profits and losses and the fixed output quotas on the basis of individual households). Peasants got their own land and were allowed to sell the surplus in the markets after submitting a fixed quota to the government. For industry, the government no longer focused on the quantity only. It monitored the quality of the industrial products as well. At the same time, it closed a number of loss-making factories and enterprises. During 1961-62, about 43,000 factories and enterprises were shut down to improve the quality of the products and enterprises themselves, hoping to achieve economic modernization. In fact, the Readjustment carried by the CCP had satisfying results. The Readjustment not only corrected the concept of blindly pursuing rash advance, but it also drove the recovery and development of national economy gradually. For instance, in industry and agriculture aspect, after the readjustment, the annual growth rate of industry was 18% and that of agriculture was 12%. Industry and agriculture were developed again. Even more, the average growth rate of gross national income during the readjustment reached 14.7%, reflecting that people’s livelihood was improved greatly. Threats from famine were eliminated. Therefore, the Readjustment carried out by the CCP helped drive the progress of economic modernization. It was very effective.
To conclude, although the CCP made efforts to achieve economic modernization in China since 1949, in which the Land Reforms, the First Five Year Plan and the Readjustment got satisfying results, the foundation of economy in China was still backward. Plus, with the disastrous setback of the Great Leap Forward, economy of China still could not reach modernization in the late 1960s.
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