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追溯並解釋1900-1939 年間德國及意大利兩國關係的發展。
架構 德國及意大利兩國的關係於1900-39年間幾經變化，由1900-15年間的平淡關係演變成對戰的敵對關係(1915-19)，到第一次世界大戰後，關係轉趨平淡(1919-33)，及至1933年開始，兩國關係日益密切，最終成為導致第二次世界大戰爆發的同盟國，以下將追溯及解釋之。
主旨句 德﹑意於第一階段(1900-15)關係保持平淡。 // 段落內容(鋪敘式寫法) 於此時期，雖然德國及意大利仍然存有盟約(1882年的三國同盟)，然而，兩國關係並不緊密，意大利更於1902年與德國的世仇法國簽訂《法意諒解》，並且於多次危機中均未有對德國作出支持，如1905及1911年兩次摩洛哥危機中，意大利均偏向支持敵對的法國而非同盟的德國。最終，於1914年塞拉耶佛危機爆發後，意大利也沒有支持德國對協約國出兵，反於1915年與協約國簽訂《倫敦條約》，轉投協約國陣營對同盟國開戰。 // 小結可見，雖然此時期兩國為一同盟關係，但關係則並不緊密，甚為平淡。
主旨句 法國拉攏意大利及德皇威廉二世對意大利的不重視態度使兩國關係平淡。 // 論點一法國自20世紀初開始積極拉攏歐洲國家，試圖圍堵德國外交，故於1902年，於法國的拉攏下，意大利與法簽訂殖民地諒解協約，使意大利對德國的同盟關係出現離心力，使德﹑意關係變淡。 // 論點二另外，由於意大利並非屬於歐洲的五大強國，故威廉二世上台後並不像前德國首相俾斯麥般重視與意大利的關係，故未有於軍事﹑經濟及殖民地利益上對意大利作出重大的支持，使意大利不滿，成為德﹑意關係變淡的要因之一。
第二階段德﹑意的關係轉向敵對(1915-1918)。意大利於此時期違反1882年簽訂的三國同盟的協議，對德﹑奧宣戰，倒戈支持協約國，德國及意大利分別從屬於同盟國及協約國的陣營，兩大陣營於大戰中對壘，德奧聯軍更與意大利軍隊於「意大利戰線」中對戰。可見，此時期德﹑意關係極為惡劣，兩國成為對戰的雙方，互相敵視。
意大利的背叛及牽制成為德﹑意關係變為敵對的主因。原本德﹑意關係雖然並不緊密，但仍然保持盟友關係。然而，由於意大利希望藉轉投協約國的一方，取得阜姆及達爾馬西亞等地，故背叛德國，加盟協約國，最終於1915年對同盟國宣戰。由於意大利的叛逆，使德國極為不滿，加上意大利於「意大利戰線」中牽制了大量德﹑奧聯軍，使德﹑奧難以攻入東﹑南方的戰線，也激起了德國的憤怒，使德﹑意關係惡劣。
第三階段德﹑意關係恢復平淡(1918-33)，甚少接觸。此時期內，德﹑意雖然解除了敵對的狀態，但雙方於外交上甚少接觸，而存有的有限度接觸均主要於國際事務上，如巴黎和會中，意大利作為戰勝國出席，但對制訂對德的戰敗條款中立場中立，而且也沒有決策權。而且，於德國簽訂《羅加諾公約》時(1925年)，意大利就作為保證國，保證條例的有效性，但兩國就並未有外交上的合作。及直1928年兩國與其他歐洲列強共同簽訂《凱格—白里安公約》作為和平條約，兩國的接觸也僅限於國際事務上。可見，此時期德﹑意兩國雖有接觸，但關係平淡。
戰事的結束及德國希望改善與其他國家的關係使兩國關係緩和。由於一戰於1918年已經結束，故結束了原本德國與意大利的敵對狀況，兩國的關係因此有所緩和。而且，德國威碼共和政府希望改善於其他國家之間的關係，故主動接觸國際社會，如德國外首斯特萊斯曼提出劃清德國西邊邊界的建議，故召開羅加諾會議，並邀請意大利作為保證國，使德﹑意有外交上的接觸，關係恢復平淡。
第四階段為德﹑意關係的友好期(1933-39)，兩國關係密切。自1933年起，兩國互相支持各國的擴張，並結成同盟關係，如1935年國聯對意大利侵略阿比西尼亞作出經濟制裁時，德國無視國聯指示，繼續與意大利進行貿易。此外，於1938年，意大利亦於慕尼黑會議中支持德國取得捷克蘇台德區，反映兩國關係靠攏。同時，意大利加入德日締結的《反共產國際協定》，形成柏林—羅馬—東京軸心(1937年)，並於1939年與德﹑意簽訂《鋼鐵條約》，結成軍事同盟，兩國更於二戰爆發後維持緊密的盟友關係。
基於同屬極權主義及為對外擴張，德﹑意於此時期交好。法西斯意大利早於1922年上台，到1933年，納粹希特拉成為德國元首，由於兩者同屬極權主義，意識形態相似，故使德﹑意關係靠攏。此外，德﹑意雙方均希望對外擴張以恢復經濟及爭取民族光榮，因此，兩國希望透過互相的援助以減少妨礙其擴張的屏障，如德﹑意締結《鋼鐵條約》，建立緊密的軍事同盟關係，使兩國靠攏。
總括而言，德﹑意關係由1900年代的平淡轉到1910年代中葉的敵對，及後於1920年代關係有所緩和，到了1930年代中葉，兩國更結成緊密同盟的關係。
Trace and explain the development of German-Italy relations in the period 1900-1939.
The relationship between Germany and Italy had experienced several changes in 1900-39. Their relationship changed from prosaic in 1900-15 to hostile in 1915-19) After WW1, their relationship turned to prosaic gradually. Starting from 1933, these countries became closer and eventually formed an alliance leading to the outbreak of WW2. This essay would trace and explain the development of Germany-Italy relations.
The Germany-Italy relations was prosaic in the first phase (1900-15). In that period, although Germany and Italy were in the same alliance (Triple Alliance三國同盟 in 1882), they were not close. Italy even signed the Franco-Italian Entente法意諒解 with France in 1902, Germany’s long-standing feud. Also, she failed to provide support to Germany in numerous crises. For instance, in two Moroccan Crises兩次摩洛哥危機in 1905 and 1911 respectively, Italy supported the antagonistic France instead of her alliance, Germany. Eventually, after the outbreak of Sarajevo Incident塞拉耶佛危機 in 1914, Italy did not support Germany by sending troops. Instead, she signed the Treaty of London倫敦條約 in 1915 and joined the Allied. She then started a war against the Triple Alliance. This showed that although Germany and Italy were in the same alliance, their relationship was not close and was prosaic.
Effort of France in drawing Italy to her side and the indifference attitude of William II led to the prosaic relationship of these two countries. Since the early 20th century, France started to draw European countries to her side in the hope of containing German diplomacy. Therefore, in 1902, Italy signed a colonial agreement with France under France’s conviction. Such act created a centrifugal force in the alliance between Italy and Germany, and this paved way to their prosaic attitude. Also, Italy was not belong to the five powers in Europe. Hence, when William II威廉二世 rose to power, he did not value the relationship with Italy like what Bismarck俾斯麥, the previous German Prime Minister, did. Therefore, Germany did not provide huge support to Italy militarily, economically and regarding the colonial benefits. This sparked the discontent of Italy and was one of reasons for their prosaic attitude.
The relationship of Germany and Italy changed to hostile in the second phase (1915-1918). Italy violated the agreement signed by supporting the Triple Alliance三國同盟 and declared war to Germany and Austria-Hungary. Germany and Italy belonged to the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente respectively and they were against each other in war. The joint army of Germany and Austria-Hungary even fought against Italy in the ‘Italian Front’ 意大利戰線. This reflected that Germany and Italy had a poor relation in this phase. They fought against each other and had great hostility.
The rebellion of Italy was the major reason leading to their hostile relationship. Originally, Germany and Italy were allies even their relationship was loose. However, as Italy hoped to get back places like Fiume阜姆 and Dalmatia達爾馬西亞 by turning to support the Triple Entente三國協約, she rebelled Germany and joined them. She then declared war to the Triple Alliance. Due to the he Italian rebellion, Germany was greatly discontented. Together with the fact that Italy restricted the joint force of Germany and Austria-Hungary in the ‘Italian Front’ which created barrier for their invasion in the East and South, Germany was even more furious. Hence, they had a hostile relationship.
The relationship of Germany and Italy turned to prosaic in the third phase (1918-33), and they had limited contact. In this phase, although Germany and Italy were not hostile towards each other, they had limited contact diplomatically. They just had very little communication on major international affairs. For instance, in the Paris Peace Conference巴黎和會, Italy participated as a victorious nation. However, she was neutral in enacting the war clauses towards Germany and had no decision-making power. Also, when Germany signed the Locarno Treaties羅加諾公約 (1925), Italy was a guarantee power保證國which had to ensure the effectiveness of treaties. However, they did not cooperate with each other diplomatically. Although they both enacted the ‘Kellogg-Briand Pact’ 凱格—白里安公約 (1928) with European powers, their contact only limited to international affairs. This reflected that although Germany and Italy had contact in this phase, they relationship was prosaic.
The end of war and desire of Germany in improving her relationship with countries cool down her relationship with Italy. As WW1 ended in 1918, the hostility of Germany and Italy was eliminated and their relationship improved. Moreover, as the Weimar Republic威碼共和政府 hoped to improve her relationship with other countries, she actively approached the international community. For instance, German foreign minister, Stresemann斯特萊斯曼, suggested making clear of the western border. Hence, the Locarno Conference was held and Italy was invited as signee. It prompted the contact of Germany and Italy diplomatically and their relationship turned to prosaic.
Germany and Italy had a close relationship in the fourth phase (1933-39). Since 1933, these two countries supported the expansion of each other and formed an alliance. For instance, when the League of Nations implemented an economic sanction to Italy for her invasion in Abyssinia阿比西尼亞in 1935, Germany neglected the instructions of the League and continued to trade with Italy. Moreover, in 1938, Italy supported Germany in getting Sudetenland in the Munich Conference慕尼黑會議, and this reflected their close relationship. At the same time, Italy joined the ‘Anti-Comintern Pact’ 反共產國際協定 signed by Germany and Japan. The Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis柏林—羅馬—東京軸心(1937) was thus formed. ‘Pact of Steel’ 鋼鐵條約 was signed by Germany and Italy in 1939 which a military alliance was then formed. They retained their close relationship after the outbreak of WW2.
As both Germany and Italy were totalitarian states and advocated foreign expansion, they were very close in this phase. Fascist Italy rose to power as early as in 1922. In 1933, Nazi Hitler became the Führer. As both of them supported totalitarianism and shared similar ideologies, they were very close. Moreover, Germany and Italy focused a lot on foreign expansion to revitalize the economy and strive or national glory. Therefore, they hoped to reduce the barriers for their expansion through providing assistance to each other. For instance, Germany and Italy formed the ‘Pact of Steel’ and formed a close military alliance. They thus had a close relationship.
To sum up, the relationship of Germany and Italy turned from prosaic in the 1900s to hostile in the 1910s. Later, their relationship cooled down a bit in the 1920s. Until mid-1930s, they formed an alliance and had a close relationship.
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