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選取兩個國家，討論哪些因素影響了該兩國於1900-49年間的關係。
架構 基於復仇主義、同盟制度、領導層因素及經濟因素，德、法兩國於20世紀上半葉維持了長期的惡劣關係，更使兩國成為兩次大戰的交戰國。然而，1920年代的和平氣氛及1940年代末冷戰的出現就是兩國改善關係的有利因素。
主旨句 其一，德、法間的復仇主義成為20世紀上半葉兩國關係交惡的催化劑。 // 內文由於德國於1871年普法戰爭擊敗法國，並迫使法國簽訂嚴苛的《法蘭克福條約》(1871年)，要求法國割讓阿爾薩斯、洛林等煤礦重鎮，法國隨即產生對德的復仇主義，一直伺機報復，最終於塞拉耶佛危機(1914年)發生後，表明支持俄國對抗德、奧，有助促使該危機演變成戰爭，而德、法也再次捲入戰爭。於一次大戰後，法國為了報復德國，於巴黎和會(1919年)中堅決要求嚴懲德國，使德國需要於《凡爾賽條約》中賠償330億美元、承擔所有戰爭罪責、失去超過10%的土地和人口。結果，德國的報復主義隨之而起，希望打破《凡爾賽條約》，最終有助希特拉上台，更於1930年代逐步推翻條約，包括於1935年重新徵兵及1936年將萊茵河區軍事化，使法國不滿，惡化了兩國的關係。 // 小結可見，德、法間的復仇主義互相報復，使兩國關係長期交惡。
其二，同盟制度也惡化了德、法兩國的關係。德國為防法國於普法戰爭(1870-71年)而開創了同盟制度，於1882年與奧、意結成三國同盟。及後，法國分別於1904年及1907年與英、俄簽訂協約，建立起三國協約。最終，三國同盟及三國協約互相對立，持敵對形勢，其中於塞拉耶佛危機(1914年)中，德國及法國分別支持其盟友奧匈及俄國而捲入戰爭，最終更演變成同盟國與協約國對戰的一次大戰局面，大大惡化了兩國的關係。至1930年代末，德國建立起侵略同盟，於1937年與意、日締結了「柏林—羅馬—東京軸心」，使法國大為顧忌。及後，德、意更於1939年簽訂《鋼鐵條約》，承諾於戰爭時互相支援，最終挑起二次大戰的爆發，使法國需要與英國等國建立起同盟國的陣營，對抗軸心國的侵略。可見，同盟制度也是德、法兩國交惡的其中原因。
其三，領導層因素大大惡化了德、法於20世紀上半葉的關係。雖然1920年代中期隨著斯特萊斯曼成為德國的外相後，其和平外交有助改善德國與法國的關係。然而，整體而言，領導層因素對德、法此時期的關係發展構成了重大的障礙，例如被稱為「老虎總理」的克里孟梭於1919年以法國代表身份出席巴黎和會，強硬地要求嚴懲德國，拒絕與德國談判，結果導致德、法關係交惡。及後，至1933年納粹希特拉於德國上台更再度惡化兩國關係，例如希特拉上台後，德國隨即拒絕於日內瓦會議(1932-34年)內與法國進行裁軍談判，退出會議，使兩國關係變差。及後，希特拉不斷發動侵略，最終於1939年9月突襲波蘭，導致法國需要向德國發出最後通牒，要求德國從波蘭撤軍。但希特拉一意孤行，進行侵略，使德法於20世紀上半葉第二次陷入戰爭。可見，20世紀上半葉德法關係的交惡是由於領導層因素所致。
其四，經濟因素也是德、法關係惡化的其中原因。於一次大戰前，德、法兩國為了殖民地的經濟利益而屢起衝突，例如為爭奪摩洛哥的勢力範圍而發生的第一次及第二次摩洛哥危機(1905年；1911年)，德國更於第二次摩洛哥危機中出動黑豹號艦隻到摩洛哥，使兩國關係尖銳化。及後，至一次大戰後，由於德國未能償還《凡爾賽條約》中的賠款，法國於1923年更聯同比利時進佔德國的魯爾區，導致「魯爾事件」，雙方關係再次緊張起來。雖然1920年代中後期歐洲出現「蜜月期」的氣氛，德、法關係有所改善，但1929年的經濟大蕭條結束了此一氛圍，各國為保護己國的國內市場而提高關稅，建立起貿易壁壘，終致各國關係變差，德、法兩國的關係亦然。更甚，法國恐怕德國會在差劣的經濟環境下再次擴張，於1932-34年的日內瓦會議中堅決要求德國再次裁軍，最終導致德國憤然退出會議，德、法關係再次惡化。可見，德、法兩國基於經濟因素而導致雙方關係變差。
雖然德、法關係受著很多不利的因素的影響而使兩國關係交惡，但亦不能忽視兩國關係改善的因素。
首先，1920年代歐洲的蜜月期氣氛有助改善德、法的關係。於一次大戰後，隨著戰後各國出現普遍的厭戰情緒，以及國聯於1920年成立後成功調解了部分國家間的衝突，例如德國與波蘭對於上西里西亞的領土糾紛，歐洲普遍出現一股和平的氣氛。在此氛圍下，德、法兩國願意嘗試改善關係，例如德國為打破外交孤立，希望重新融入歐洲社會，因此主動召開了羅加諾會議(1925年)，確立了德、法、比的邊界，並重申德國遵守《凡爾賽條約》有關萊茵河區非軍事的規定，減低法國對德國的顧忌，使兩國關係有所改變。及後，在法國及美國攜手下，多達65個國家簽訂了《凱格—白里安公約》(1928年)，以共同譴責戰爭，其中德國也有參與在內。在和平的氣氛下，德、法兩國的關係於1920年代中後期得到了改善，雙方未有再發生太大的衝突，緩和了兩國的緊張關係。可見，1920年代的蜜月期氣氛有助改善兩國的關係。
此外，冷戰的出現有助使德、法於1940年代末改善關係。二次大戰後，德國於《波茨坦協定》中被分裂為四個部分，分別被英、美、法、蘇四國佔領。其後，英、美、法三國的德國佔領區合併為西德，歸屬到資本主義陣營下，至於蘇聯控制的東德則歸納到共產主義陣營旗下。資本主義與共產主義間的冷戰形勢雖然使法國與東德的關係疏離，但卻令其與西德的關係日益密切，法國甚至支持建立強大的西德以對抗蘇聯共產主義的擴張。而且，美國為免惡劣的經濟環境會成為共產主義滋長的溫床，於1948年推出了馬歇爾計劃，提供130億美元援助予西歐國家，包括法國及西德。西歐國家為分配馬歇爾計劃而成立了「歐洲經濟合作組織」，法國及西德參與其內，開展了西歐國家在經濟上的統合，及後於20世紀下半葉不斷加強合作，使法國及西德兩國關係日趨靠攏，關係大有改善。可見，冷戰的出現有助使德、法兩國靠攏。
總括而言，德、法關係基於復仇主義、同盟制度、領導層因素及經濟因素而交惡，但1920年代的和平氣氛及1940年代末冷戰的形勢亦有助改善兩國關係，更促使德、法在20世紀下半葉日益靠攏。
Choose two countries and discuss the factors affecting their relationship in the period 1900-49.
Owing to revanchism, alliance system, leadership factor and economic factor, the relations between France and Germany was poor in the first half of the 20th century. Germany was even an enemy of France in both world wars. Despite the poor relations, the peaceful atmosphere in the 1920s and the emergence of Cold War in the late 1940s were some favorable factors contributing to the improved relations between two countries.
First, revanchism復仇主義 among France and Germany was a catalyst for their poor relations in the first half of the 20th century. Since Germany defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War普法戰爭 in 1870-71 and forced France to sign the humiliating Treaty of Frankfurt《法蘭克福條約》(1871). The treaty requested France to cede the Alsace-Lorraine阿爾薩斯、洛林, which was famous for coal. France thus developed revanchism and hoped to take a revenge on Germany. France was waiting for a suitable time to take revenge. Eventually, Sarajevo Incident塞拉耶佛危機(1914) broke out and France declared that she would support Russia to fight against Austria-Hungary and Germany. The confrontation between France and Germany gradually developed into a war and they were embroiled in the First World War (1914-18). After the First World War, France, in order to take a revenge on Germany, insisted on punishing Germany severely. In the Paris Peace Conference (1919), Treaty of Versailles《凡爾賽條約》 stated that Germany had to pay US$ 33 billion, bearing the sole responsibility of causing the war. Worse still, around 10% of German's territories were lost, giving rise to Germany's revanchism, which aimed to abolish the Treaty of Versailles. This favored the rise of Hitler, who broke the treaties step by step in the 1930s like the re-conscription重新徵兵 in 1935 and the re-militarization in Rhineland萊茵河區 in 1936. This created dissatisfaction among France and relations with Germany worsened. Hence, it could be seen that the revanchism among France and Germany made them take revenge on one another, which in turn worsened their relations.
Second, alliance system also aggravated the relations between France and Germany. Germany, in a bid to prevent France from taking revenge due to the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War普法戰爭(1870-71), started the alliance system. In 1882, Germany formed an alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy, which was called the Triple Alliance三國同盟. Later, France also signed an Entente with Britain and Russia respectively in 1904 and 1907, which was called the Triple Entente三國協約. Being hostile to one another, France and Germany confronted the opposite side, which led to the Sarajevo Incident塞拉耶佛危機(1914). During the Sarajevo Incident, Germany supported her alliance – Austria-Hungary while France also supported her alliance – France. They were finally embroiled in the First World War (1914-18), which was fought between the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente, aggravating their relations. In the end of the 1930s, Germany formed an aggressive alliance, with which Italy and Japan were the members. The alliance was called the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis柏林—羅馬—東京軸心(1937), which arouse suspicion of France. Later, Germany even signed the Pact of Steel鋼鐵條約 with Italy in 1939, under which it stated that armed support should be provided when any side was under attack. Eventually, the Second World War broke out and France, had no choice but to join the Allies and fought against the Axis. Hence, the alliance system was the factor aggravating the relations between France and Germany.
Third, leadership factor also aggravated the relations between France and Germany. Undoubtedly, the relations between France and Germany did improve when Stresemann斯特萊斯曼 had become Germany's Prime Minister in the mid-1920s as a result of the peaceful diplomacy adopted by him. However, generally speaking, the leadership factor was a hindrance to the improving Franco-German relations. For example, in 1919, during the Paris Peace Conference, 克里孟梭Clemenceau, who was called 'tiger' Prime Minister, represented France to attend the conference. He maintained that Germany should be punished severely and he refused to negotiate with Germany. At last, the relations between France and Germany worsened. With the rise of Hitler希特拉 and Nazism starting from 1933, their relations further aggravated. For example, when Hitler gained power in 1933, he soon refused to negotiate with France during the Geneva Conference日內瓦會議(1932-34) and even quitted the conference, which again led to the poor relations among them. Subsequently, Hitler initiated invasions constantly, one of which was the attack on Poland in September 1939, leading to the ultimatum issued by France, under which it stated that Germany had to retreat her army from Poland. Hitler was not willing to succumb to France and continued his aggression. The Second World War thus broke out. Hence, it could be seen that leadership factor also worsened the relations between France and Germany.
Fourth, economic factor also caused the poor relations between France and Germany. Before the First World War, the scramble for colonial interest between France and Germany also led to conflicts. For instance, the First and Second Moroccan Crisis第一次及第二次摩洛哥危機 were created by France and Germany, both of whom were looking for interests in Morocco. In the Second Moroccan Crisis, Germany even sent gunboat Panther to Morocco, which jeopardized the relations among France and Germany. Later, after the Second World War, as Germany failed to pay the reparation stated in the Treaty of Versailles《凡爾賽條約》, France, together with Belgium, invaded Rhur, which was called the Rhur Incident「魯爾事件」(1923). Their relations intensified again. Although their relations seemed improved after the mid-1920s, which was called the 'Honeymoon' period, their relations turned poor again after the Great Depression (1929). Since the European countries wanted to protect their own economy after the Great Depression, they increased tariff and built trade barrier. The relations between France and Germany worsened as a result. To make things worse, France, for fear that Germany would become aggressive again because of poor economy, she maintained that Germany had to reduce her army in the Geneva Conference日內瓦會議(1932-34). This angered Germans, aggravating the relations between France and Germany. Hence, it could be seen that economic factor also caused the poor relations between France and Germany.
Though there were a number of unfavorable factors worsening the Franco-German relations, the factors that improved their relations should not be neglected either.
To begin with, the 'Honeymoon' period of Europe in the 1920s improved their relations. After WW1, a general war-weariness emerged among nations and the League of Nations had resolved several disputes since its establishment, including the territorial conflicts between Germany and Poland over Upper Silesia上西里西亞. Correspondingly, a peaceful atmosphere was created in Europe. Under such atmosphere, Germany and France were willing to improve their relations. Take Germany as an example. Since she did not want to be isolated diplomatically, she took the initiative to hold the Locarno Conference羅加諾會議(1925), which confirmed the Western borders of Germany with Belgium and France. This allowed her to integrate herself into the European society. Germany also claimed that she would abide by the Treaty of Versailles, which stated that Germany should demilitarize in Rhineland萊茵河區. This lowered the scruple of France towards Germany. The relations began to change. Subsequently, with the cooperation of France and the US, more than 65 countries signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact《凱格—白里安公約》(1928), which was a treaty for renunciation of war. Germany also signed the treaty. Under the peaceful atmosphere, the relations between France and Germany improved in the 1920s. No large conflicts occurred in that period, easing the relations among them. Hence, it could be seen that the 'Honeymoon' period of Europe in the 1920s improved their relations.
Moreover, the emergence of Cold War improved the relations between France and Germany in the late 1940s. After the Second World War, Germany was divided into 4 zones, occupied by the US, the USSR, Britain and France respectively, under the Potsdam Agreement《波茨坦協定》. Later, the zone occupied by the US, Britain and France merged to form West Germany, belonging to the capitalist bloc. As for East Germany, she was under the control of the USSR. Although the confrontation of capitalist and communist bloc during the Cold War isolated France from East Germany, the Cold War situation made France join the West Germany closer. France even helped build a more powerful West Germany to resist the expansion of Communism. Apart from that, the US launched the Marshall Plan in 1948 so as to prevent the poor economy of Europe from becoming a hotbed for the growth of Communism. US$ 13 billion were provided for Western European countries, including France and West Germany. In addition, Western European countries, with a view to allocating the funds of Marshall Plan馬歇爾計劃, established the Organization for European Economic Cooperation歐洲經濟合作組織. Both France and West Germany joined the organization, embarking on the economic cooperation among Western European countries. They had more and more cooperation in the second half of the 20th century. This made France and West Germany closer and improved their relations. Hence, it could be seen that the emergence of Cold War improved the relations between France and Germany.
In conclusion, the Franco-German relations worsened because of revanchism, alliance system, leadership factor and economic factor while the peaceful atmosphere in the 1920s and the Cold War situation in the late 1940s improved their relations, drawing them closer to one another in the second half of the 20th century.
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